Author Archives: sajikoduvath

Saji Koduvath, Advocate, Kottayam.  

What is Easement?

• Easement is a right possessed by the owner of a land (dominant land),
  • to use the land of another (servient land),
  • for the beneficial enjoyment of the dominant land.

Easement Does Not Confer Ownership or Possession

By virtue of easement –

• No Ownership is bestowed in the (servient) land (AIR 2004 All 359; AIR 1925 Bom 335).
• No Possession is obtained in the (servient) land. (2011 (2) KLT 605; AIR 1925 Bom 335).  
• No Substantive Interest is created in the (servient) land. (2003 (1) KLT 320; AIR 1954 All 393).

Easement (सुखाधिकार) is Well Recognised, And Circumscribed by Law

• Easement is a limited right to ‘use’or ‘enjoy‘ another’s land.
• It is to do, or to prevent to do, some specific thing.
• It is to be exercised in a way least onerous to ‘another’s land’.
• It is not a right to build and enjoy.
• The right gained cannot be enlarged.
  • That is, an easement of way to a particular (dominant) property cannot be extended to another property by the dominant owner; an easement for residential purpose cannot be enlarged for an industrial purpose. (Sec. 28, 29, 43 etc.)
• Servient owner can use his land in any manner (without disturbing enjoyment of the easement).

According to ‘Katiyar on Easements’:                                                                   

• Easement is not a right to land or exclude owner.
• It is not a right to permanent occupation. 
• It does not confer exclusive right of user/enjoyment.
• And, it is not a corporeal interest in land.

Easement – Definition under the Indian Easements Act

SECTION 4 of the Indian Easements Act defines Easements as under:

• “An easement is a right
• which the owner or occupier of certain land possesses,
  • as such,
• for the beneficial enjoyment of that land 
• to do and continue to do something, or to prevent and continue to prevent something being done,
• in or upon, or in respect of, certain other land not his own.”

Salient Limitations of Easement under the Indian Easements Act

• The owner of a land only ‘uses’or ‘enjoys‘ land of another (Sec. 31)
• It is only ‘enjoyment’ of soil or things ‘subsisting’ (Explanation in Sec. 4).
• It allows limited enjoyment of land, and advantages from its situation: S. 7
• Right be exercised in a way least onerous to ‘another’s land’: Sec. 22
• Servient owner can secure full enjoyment; but, he should cause as little inconvenience: Sec. 24: 2017-2 KLT 63

It is Not a right to:                                            

• tend to total destruction of servient tenement: S. 17 (2003 (1) KLT320)
• make additional burden: S. 23
• make constructions in, or cultivate upon: (2003 (1) KLT 320).
• prevent servient owner to use: S. 27 : 2003 (1) KLT 320
• enlarge purpose of, or accustomed user: S. 28
• substantially increase an easement: S. 29
• prevent servient owner from obstructing excessive  ‘user’ of servient land – as ‘enjoyment of easement’: S. 31
• increase burden by making permanent change in do. tent: S. 43
• capable of forming grant – No easement, if Not capable of forming grant (without document or registration): 1987 (2) KLT 1037.

No easement if:

• right claimed is incidents of ownership.
• servient property belongs to him. Easement is a right with conscious knowledge that the servient property does not belong to him. AIR 1966 Raj 265. It must also be with proper animus as to easement: AIR 1973 Mad 173.

The word ‘Servient’ is derived from ‘Serve’

Literal meaning of the word ‘servient’ is – subordinate, subservient and subject to another. Etymologically it is derived from ‘servus’ (Latin) meaning – slave or servant.

Sec. 4 Explains ‘Servient Heritages’ as under:

• “Dominant and Servient Heritages and Owners: The land for the beneficial enjoyment of which the right exists is called the dominant heritage, and the owner or occupier thereof the dominant owner; the land on which the liability is imposed is called the servient heritage, and the owner or occupier thereof the servient owner.”

Thus, the land upon which the right is claimed is ‘servient’ land.

“For the Beneficial Enjoyment of that Land.“

The most outstanding clause in the definition of easement is “Beneficial Enjoyment”.

Easements are primarily for the beneficial enjoyment of dominant heritage. Easement stands as part and parcel of dominant land. The definition says that an easement is a ‘right which the owner or occupier of certain land possesses, as such’. 

“As Such“

‘As such’ is used for emphasis to convey that easement is essentially connected to the dominant land, and it is inherently for the beneficial enjoyment of annexed/appertained (dominant) land; and not a right ‘in gross’ (for the benefit of individuals).

It also conveys the idea that the ‘easement’ must be one existing: and not one intended to be created in future.

Profit-a-prendre – Indian Law Varies from English Law

Under English Law, an easement is a privilege alone; and profit-a-prendre (right to take) is not an easement. It does not allow “Removal and Appropriation” also. The Indian Easements Act purposefully used “to do something in or upon”, decisively avoiding, ‘to use’ or ‘to enjoy’; because, Indian Law allows ‘profit-a-prendre‘ [fishing, pasturing, grass-cutting for thatching, etc.]. It is allowed on Indian situations – but, without conferring substantial interest in the servient land. ‘Profit a predre’ is not appurtenant to any dominant land; and it is a right ‘in gross’ (for the benefit of individuals).

Explanation to Sec. 4 of the Indian Easements Act, 1882 reads as under:

• “Explanation – In the first and second clauses of this section, the expression “land” includes also things permanently attached to the earth;
• the expression “beneficial enjoyment” includes also possible convenience, remote advantage, and even a mere amenity;
• and the expression “to do something” includes removal and appropriation by the dominant owner, for the beneficial enjoyment of the dominant heritage, of any part of the soil of the servient heritage, or anything growing or subsisting thereon.”

From the above Explanation it is clear that easement includes appropriation of certain tangible material things or natural resources (Profit-a-Prendre). They are further made clear by the Illustrations to various sections as shown under:

• Illustn.-(d) of S.4. It speaks as to Graze cattle, take water and fish out from the tank, take timber from wood, take fallen leaves for manuring.
• Illustn.- (b) of S. 22. It states about cutting  thatching- grass. 
• Illustn.- (a) of S. 24. It refers to easement to lay pipes.

Hence, it is clear: Easement is not a mere ‘Privilege’; but, it includes:

• limited (legally-recognised) enjoyment /user/interest in serviant heritage, and
• a right for (expressly-recognised) profit.

Though Profit-a-prendre is allowed by Indian law considering the peculiarities of Indian situations, it is not a corporeal right.  And, it does not allow maintaining a substantial interest over the servient land.  No profit-a-prendre in gross also, i.e., for the benefit of individuals. On a close look, it can be seen that it is substantially related to ‘user’ of servient land.

“To do do something & ‘Removal and Appropriation‘

In State of Bihar v. Subodh Gopal Bose, AIR 1968 SC 281, our Apex Court held as under:

• “By the Explanation to Sec. 4 the expression “to do something” includes removal and appropriation by the dominant owner, for the beneficial enjoyment of the dominant heritage, of any part of the soil of the servient heritage, or anything growing or subsisting thereon. A profit-a- prendre is therefore included in the definition of “easement” in Sec. 4 of the Indian Easements Act. But an easement being a right which is super-added to the ordinary common law incidents of the ownership of a dominant tenement, and which connotes a corresponding burden on a servient tenement, can only be created by grant, or by statute.”

Easement is acquired; not arise out of ‘Express Permission’

Sec. 12, Easements Act states that an easement is acquired (under grant, partition or prescription) by the owner of an immovable property. Section 12, Indian Easements Act, 1882 reads as under:

• 12. Who may acquire easements-An easement may be acquired by the owner of the immovable property for the beneficial enjoyment of which the right is created, or on his behalf, by any person in possession of the same.
• One of two or more co-owners of immovable property may, as such, with or without the consent of the other or others, acquire an easement for the beneficial enjoyment of such property.
• No lessee of immovable property can acquire, for the beneficial enjoyment of other immovable property of his own, an easement in or over the property comprised in his lease.

It is observed by the Apex Court in Bachhaj Nahar Vs. Nilima Mandal, AIR 2009 SC 1103, that the claimant of easement (prescription) should plead and prove that the right claimed was enjoyed independent of any agreement with the owner of the property over which the right is claimed, as any user with the express permission of the owner will be a licence and not an easement. 

Easement and Licence – Distinction

Division Bench of the Delhi High Court, in Chandu Lal v. Municipal Corporation of Delhi, AIR 1978 Del 174, distinguished easement and licence as under:

• “26… A mere licensee has only a right to use the property. Such a right does not amount to an easement or an interest in the property but is only a personal privilege to the licensee. After the termination of the license, the licensor is entitled to deal with the property as he likes. This right he gets as an owner in possession of his property. He need not secure a decree of the Court to obtain the right. He is entitled to resist in defence of his property the attempts of a trespasser to come upon his property by exerting the necessary and reasonable force to expel a trespasser……..”

Acquisition of Easements – “Basis of Every Right of Easement is Grant”

The Indian Easements Act, 1882 refers to the different methods by which easements are acquired. They are pointed out (Ramkanya Bai v. Jagdish, AIR 2011 SC 3258) to be the following:

1. easements by grant: express grant by the owner of the servient heritage
2. easements of necessity: based on implied grants or reservations made by the owner of a servient heritage at the time of transfers or partitions
3. easements by prescription: it is presumed that it is acquired by peaceable and open enjoyment, without interruption for twenty years and
4. customary easements: it is inferred that it is acquired by virtue of a local custom.

For easement by prescription, it is not necessary that the user should be exclusive, but the claimant should exercise it under some claim existing in his own favour independently of all others.

The origin of all easements is, theoretically, grant by the servient owner. It may be express or implied. It may also be presumed from long user.

In Lachhi v. Ghansara Singh, AIR 1972 HP 89, it is held as under:

• “The basis of every right of easement by whatsoever method it may have been acquired, is theoretically a grant from the servient-owner.
  • It may be expressed, as is mentioned in Sections 8 to 12 of the Act, or
  • it may be implied from the circumstances as in Section 13 of the Act. or
  • it may be presumed from long and continued user for a certain period as in Section 15 of the Act, or
  • it may be inferred from a long and continued practice of user by a certain class of the public in certain locality.” 

Grant may be Express or “Implied“

The origin of all easements is, theoretically, grant by the servient owner. It may be express or implied. It may also be presumed from long user.

• Note: Traditionally, the term ‘implied easement’ was used by the conventional authorities only to denote ‘easement of necessity‘. However, in Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 622, the Supreme Court used the same to refer to an easement of grant ‘arising by implication‘.

It is observed in Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 622, as under:

• “13. On the question of easement by grant, the Appellate Court was of the opinion that the plaintiff’s claim in that respect stood proved. The plaintiff had acquaintance and association with the Ashramam and Yogini Amma from his childhood days as revealed from the oral and documentary evidence. Considering the location and nature of `B’ schedule pathway, the location of two pillars at its inception and the gate from which it started, it could be seen that it had been in use by the plaintiff as a pathway. The plaintiff had been residing in the house on `A’ schedule property even prior to the deed of settlement. Therefore, the Appellate Authority arrived at the conclusion that the plaintiff had obtained right of easement of grant from Yogini Amma over the `B’ schedule pathway.
• An easement of grant is a matter of contract between the parties and it may have its own consideration. (B.B. Katiyar’s Commentaries on Easements and Licenses, p. 762).  It may be either express or even by necessary implication. Though easement of necessity will come to an end with the termination of necessity, easement acquired by grant cannot be extinguished on that ground as per section 13(b) of the Indian Easements Act, 1882. Therefore, even assuming that the plaintiff had an alternative pathway as contended by the defendants, it does not extinguish the right of easement of grant in favour of the plaintiff. Therefore, the Trial Court was justified in granting a relief of declaration of right of easement of grant over the `B’ schedule pathway. However, the declaration granted on the ground of easement of necessity was not justified.”

The aforesaid Supreme Court decision (Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 622) arose from the Kerala High Court decision, Sree Swyam Prakash Ashramam v. N. Gopala Pillai on 9 May, 2006. It was affirmed by the Supreme Court. The Kerala High Court held as under:

• “Theoretically all easements have their origin in some sort of grant by the servient owner. The grant may be express or it may be implied from the surrounding attendant circumstances and conduct of the parties or it may even be presumed from long user. In the case of an express grant of easement the limit thereof depends on the words used.”

Upholding the view of the Kerala High Court the Apex Court held as under:

• “In our view, therefore, the High Court was also fully justified in holding that there was implied grant of ‘B’ schedule property as pathway, which can be inferred from the circumstances for the reason that no other pathway was provided for access to ‘A’ schedule property of the plaint and there was no objection also to the use of ‘B’ schedule property of the plaint as pathway by the original plaintiff (since deceased) at least up to 1982, when alone the cause of action for the suit arose.”

Also read: Implied Grant: A Valid Mode of Creation of Easement under Indian Law

No Explicit ‘Consideration’ Required for Easement by Grant

Neither the provisions of the enacted law (Easements Act, 1882) nor judicial decisions specifically address the requirement of ‘consideration’ in the creation of easements by grant. This omission is understandable, as Indian law clearly permits the acquisition of easements by grant – both express and implied. Since an easement may arise by implication, and the intention to grant can be inferred from the terms of the grant or the surrounding circumstances, the fundamental principle of easement law – that every easement is, in theory, rooted in a grant – supports the conclusion that no express consideration is required for the creation of an easement by grant.

Sec. 8 of the Indian Easements Act reads:

• “An easement may be acquired by the owner of the immovable property for the beneficial enjoyment of which the right is created, or, on his behalf, by any person in possession of the same.”

Sec. 13 further elaborates on easements of necessity and quasi-easements, indicating that such easements can arise from the transfer or bequest of immovable property, again without a requirement for consideration.

In Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, the Supreme Court held:

• “Theoretically all easements have their origin in some sort of grant by the servient owner. The grant may be express or it may be implied from the surrounding attendant circumstances and conduct of the parties or it may even be presumed from long user.”

Consideration is not an essential element for easement of grant. In Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, the Supreme Court held easement of grant is a matter of contract between the parties and it may have its own consideration. (B.B. Katiyar’s Commentaries on Easements and Licenses, p. 762). 

Extent of Easement – If used for several purposes, inferred for all purposes

Generally speaking, law on easement is strict and stand against unreasonably enlarging easements and imposing additional burthen on servient tenement.

But, in Cowling v Higginson (1838) 4 M & W 245, it was held as under:

• “If a way has been used for several purposes, there may be a ground for inferring that there is a right of way for all purposes.”

At times the courts in India also took a pragmatic stand that easement for one purpose can be changed to another, provided there is no additional burden (agricultural purposes might be used for the purpose of a factory provided no additional burden). It can be shown that what is prohibited is “substantial increase” (as provided in Sec. 29). See:

• Jesang v. Whittle, (1899) ILR 23 Bom 595,
• Manchersha Sorabji v. Virjivallabhdas, (1926) ILR 50 Bom 635,
• Mahammad Beari v. Badava Beari, (1931) 61 Mad LJ 58.

Easement – Enlargement & Imposing Additional Burthen.

Under the provisions of the Easements Act, the dominant owner cannot –

• enlarge purpose of, or accustomed user (S. 28) and
• substantially increase an easement (S. 29).
  • For example, an easement of way to a particular (dominant) property cannot be extended to another property by the dominant owner; an easement for residential purpose cannot be enlarged for an industrial purpose. (Sec. 28, 29, 43 etc.)

Sec. 28 of the Easement Act reads as under:

• 28 Extent of easements -With respect to the extent of easements and the mode of their enjoyment, the following provisions shall take effect:-
• Easement of necessity -An easement of necessity is co-extensive with the necessity as it existed when the easement was imposed.
• Other easements -The extent of any other easement and the mode of its enjoyment must be fixed with reference to the probable intention of the parties, and the purpose for which the right was imposed or acquired. In the absence of evidence as to such intention and purpose-
  • .(a) Right of way -A right of way of any one kind does not include a right of way of any other kind;
• • (b) Right to light or air acquired by grant -The extent of a right to the passage of light or air to a certain window, door on other opening, imposed by a testamentary or non-testamentary instrument, is the quantity of light or air that entered the opening at the time the testator died or the non-testamentary instrument was made;
• • (c) Prescriptive right to light or air -The extent of a prescriptive right to the passage of light or air to a certain window, door or other opening is that quantity of light or air which has been accustomed to enter that opening during the whole of the prescriptive period irrespectively of the purposes for which it has been used;
  • (d) Prescriptive right to pollute air or water-The extent of a prescriptive right to pollute air or water is the extent of the pollution at the commencement of the period of user on completion of which the right arose; and
  • (e) Other prescriptive rights -The extent of every other prescriptive right and the mode of its enjoyment must be determined by the accustomed user of the right.

Sec. 29 of the Easement Act reads as under:

• 29. Increase of easement -The dominant owner cannot, by merely altering or adding to the dominant heritage, substantially increase an easement. Where an easement has been granted or bequeathed so that its extent shall be proportionate to the extent of the dominant heritage, if the dominant heritage is increased by allution, the easement is proportionately increased, and if the dominant heritage is diminished by dilution, the easement is proportionately diminished. Save as aforesaid, no easement is effected by any change in the extent of the dominant or the servient heritage.

Existence of alternate way will End Easement of Necessity

Existence of alternate way, how ever inconvenient, will end Easement of Necessity.

• See: Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 622
• Gouri Amma Krishnamma v. Seethalakshmi Amma, AIR 2004 Ker 75,
• Thilakraj v. Sebastian, 2014-4 Ker LT 714, 2014 KHC 5042,
• Rameshchandra Bhikhabhai Patel v. Sakriben,  AIR 1978 Guj 62.

In Hero Vinoth (Minor) v. Seshammal, (2006) 5 SCC 545, AIR 2006 SC 2234, it is held that an easement by grant would not get extinguished under Section 41 of the Act which relates to an easement of necessity.

Easement of Necessity is limited to Barest Necessity, however inconvenient it is

In Hero Vinoth (Minor) vs. Seshammal, (2006) 5 SCC 545, AIR 2006 SC 2234, our Apex Court held as under:

• “An easement of necessity is one which is not merely necessary for the reasonable enjoyment of the dominant tenement, but one where dominant tenement cannot be used at all without the easement. The burden of the servient owner in such a case is not on the basis of any concession or grant made by him for consideration or otherwise, but it is by way of a legal obligation enabling the dominant owner to use his land. It is limited to the barest necessity however inconvenient it is irrespective of the question whether a better access could be given by the servient owner or not. When an alternate access becomes available, the legal necessity of burdening the servient owner ceases and the easement of necessity by implication of law is legally withdrawn or extinguished as statutorily recognized in Section 41. Such an easement will last only as long as the absolute necessity exists. Such a legal extinction cannot apply to an acquisition by grant and Section 41 is not applicable in such case.”

Who has the Burden to show Alternate Way

In Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 622, it is held that the plaintiff claiming easement of necessity or grant has only a primary burden to prove the absence of any alternate pathway.

“In a case where the original plaintiff was claiming easement right either as grant or as of necessity the plaintiff has only a primary burden to prove the absence of any alternate pathway. As the defendants have not proved the existence of any pathway for access to Plaint `A’ schedule property the version of the plaintiff that there is no alternate pathway shall be accepted. … The defendants have not entered the witness box to disprove the evidence led by the plaintiff.”

Who has the Onus to show Alternate Way Could Not be Used ‘As Of Right’

When the existence of alternate way is shown by the alleged servient owner of easement of necessity, the onus to prove that the way cannot be used “as of right” is upon the dominant owner. In Antony @ Anthappan v. George,  LAWS(KER) 2012-11-179 it is held by t6he Kerala High Court as under:

• “11. When the existence of an alternate way is shown, the appellants ought to have shown that they could not use it as of right. That is because that is a matter within the knowledge of the appellants. The appellants did not adduce evidence in that line.”

The High Court then remanded the case giving the dominant owners an opportunity to adduce evidence to show that the alternate way was not one which they were entitled to use as of right.

Apparent and Continuous Easements

Sec. 5 of the Easements Act defines apparent and continuous easements.

• An apparent easement is defined as one the existence of which is shown by some permanent sign which, upon careful inspection by a competent person, would be visible to him; and
• a continuous easement is one whose enjoyment is, or may be, continual without the act of man.

Easement of Necessity and Quasi Easement

• Easement of Necessity: even if – no visible sign (not apparent); and even if – never used before (not continuous). E.g., a foot path to a landlocked plot.
  • But, there should have strict necessity.
• Quasi Easement – must be visible (apparent) and must be functioning without repeated human action (continuous). E.g., water flowing through a pipe or a drainage system.
  • It is based on prior use before land division.
  • It requires only reasonable necessity, not strict necessity.

Implied Grant and Quasi-Easement

• The question of implied grant (or quasi-easement) arises only if the alleged easement is:
  • Apparent (i.e., visible upon reasonable inspection), and
  • Continuous (i.e., functions without repeated human intervention)
• E.g., Water flowing through a pipe, A drainage trench, Overhead electric cables.

Implied Grant and Quasi Easement in a ‘Formed’ Way

There could be no implied grant where the easements are not continuous and non-apparent. But, in Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 622, our Apex Court found quasi easement under Section 13(b) of the Indian Easements Act over a way in the following circumstances –

• Though there could be no implied grant where the easements are not continuous and non-apparent, if there is a ‘formed road’ existing over one part of the tenement for the apparent use of another portion or there is ‘some permanence in the adaptation of the tenement’ from which continuity may be inferred, an exception can be inferred (Annapurna Dutta vs. Santosh Kumar Sett, AIR 1937 Cal.661, B.K. Mukherjee, referred to).
• There was implied grant of ‘B’ schedule property as pathway, which can be inferred from the circumstances for the reason that no other pathway was provided for access to dominant property and there was no objection also to the use of disputed way by the plaintiff.
• An easement may arise by implication, if the intention to grant can properly be inferred either from the terms of the grant or the circumstances.
• A trace of the pathway could be presumed to be in existence from the time when the plaintiff acquired the properties by separation of tenements.
• Only access to the property was through disputed pathway.
• It was required for the reasonable and convenient use of the plaintiff’s property and that on severance of the tenements, plaintiff can be presumed to have got a right over disputed pathway by an implied grant and also an easement of necessity.
• The user was not obstructed for very long time.
• There was no reason to disbelieve the plaintiff’s version that disputed way was given as grant for his use as he was a close relative of the former.
• There was an apparent and continuous use which was necessary for the enjoyment of the `A’ schedule property within the meaning of Section 13(b) of the Indian Easements Act.
• The defendants have not entered the witness box to disprove the evidence led by the plaintiff.
• Therefore, the plaintiff was entitled to easement right in respect of the pathway.

Pleaded ‘Grant’; Not, Implied Grant – Apex Court, allowed Implied Grant

Though the plaintiff pleaded only ‘Grant’, and not, Implied Grant,  our Apex Court, in Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 622, allowed Implied Grant observing as under:

• “It is true that the defendant/appellant alleged that no implied grant was pleaded in the plaint. The Trial Court, in our view, was justified in holding that such pleadings were not necessary when it did not make a difference to the finding arrived at with respect to the easement by way of grant. Accordingly, there is no substance in the argument raised by the learned senior counsel for the appellants.”

Grant of Right of Way must be Liberally Construed

Katiyar on Easements repeatedly said in his treatise that a ‘grant of right of way must be liberally construed’ to ensure the dominant owner’s beneficial enjoyment of his land. Gale on Easements (leading English treatise) and “Law of Easements and Licenses” by P.S. Narayana also emphasised this principle.

In Mathai v. Jordi Poulose,  ILR 2011-2 Ker 484; 2011-2 KHC 591; 2011-2 KLT 605, it was found that the suit agreement, made it clear that the right given thereunder was not a personal right but a right for the beneficial enjoyment for the property, and it could only be a right of easement and not a licence. The High Court  referring Ram Sarup Gupta v. Bishun Narain Inter College, AIR 1987 SC 1242, said further as under:

• “18. True, the plaint did not specifically show that appellant has claimed a right of easement by grant. But as rightly argued by the learned counsel appearing for the appellant, a pleading must be liberally construed and placing undue emphasis on the form is not in the interest of justice. The Honourable Supreme Court in Ram Sarup Gupta v. Bishun Narain Inter College (AIR 1987 SC 1242) held:
• “It is well settled that in the absence of pleading, evidence, if any, produced by the parties cannot be considered. It is also equally settled that no party should be permitted to travel beyond its pleading and that all necessary and material facts should be pleaded by the party in support of the case set up by it. The object and purpose of pleading is to enable the adversary party to know the case it has to meet. In order to have a fair trial it is imperative that the party should state the essential material facts so that other party may not be taken by surprise. The pleadings however should receive a liberal construction, no pedantic approach should be adopted to defeat justice on hair splitting technicalities. Sometimes, pleadings are expressed in words which may not expressly make out a case in accordance with strict interpretation of law, in such a case it is the duty of the Court to ascertain the substance of the pleadings to determine the question. It is not desirable to place undue emphasis on form, instead the substance of the pleadings should be considered. Whenever the question about lack of pleading is raised the enquiry should not be so much about the form of the pleadings, instead the Court must find out whether in substance the parties knew the case and the issues upon which they went to trial. Once it is found that in spite of deficiency in the pleadings parties knew the case and they proceeded to trial on those issues by producing evidence, in that event it would not be open to a party to raise the question of absence of pleadings in appeal.”

Leading English cases on – Easements cannot be Increased

Following are the leading English cases extensively referred by Katiyar (on Easements) in this regard-

1. Williams v. James: [1867] LR 2 CP 577, held that ‘a right of way obtained by prescription for the purpose of carting hay to field ‘cannot be increased so as to affect the servient tenement by imposing upon it any additional burthen’.

• This decision is followed in Jotindra Mohan Mitter v. Probodh Kumar Dutt, AIR 1932 Cal 249, and it was held –
• “In ascertaining the extent of the right of user of a road when the condition of the adjoining property has been altered, the fact that there was plenty of room in the road had never been taken into consideration. The right must be measured according to the principle laid down by Wills, J., in Williams v. James [1867] 2 C.P. 577 as a reasonable use for the purpose of the land in the condition in which it was when the user took place, that is in the case of this mansion, in the state in which it was when the grant was made. The matter must however be looked at reasonably, and no small addition to the house would be improper. Here there had been a very large increase.

2. Wimbledon and Putney Commons Conservators v. Dixon: (1875) 1 Ch D 362, held that ‘if a right of way to a field be proved by evidence of user, however general, for whatever purpose qua field, the person who is the owner of that field cannot from that say, I have a right to turn that field into a manufactory, or into a town, and then use the way for the purpose of the manufactory or town so built.’

• This decision is followed in Manchersha Sorabji Shet v. Virijvalavdas Jekisandas, (1926) 28 BomLR 1158, and it was held –
• “In Wimbledon and Putney Commons Conservators v. Dixon (1875) 1 Ch D 362 it was held that the immemorial user of a right of way for all purposes for which a road was wanted in the then condition of the property, does not establish a right of way for all purposes in an altered condition of the property where that would impose a greater burden on the servient tenement. Where a road had been immemorially used to a farm not only for usual agricultural purposes, but in certain instances for carrying building materials to enlarge the farm-house and rebuild a cottage on the farm, and for carting away sand and gravel dug out of the farm, it was decided that those circumstances did not establish a right of way for carting the materials required for building a number of new houses on the land.”

3. Corporation of London v. Riggs (1880) 13 Ch. D. 798 held that a right of way of necessity is not a general right “for all purposes”; it is limited to the uses to which it had been put at the time when the action first arose or when the way of necessity was created.

• This decision is followed in Manchersha Sorabji Shet v. Virijvalavdas Jekisandas, (1926) 28 BomLR 1158, and it was held –
• “Again, in Corporation of London v. Riggs (1880) 13 Ch.D. 798 the head-note runs as follows :- Where the owner of a close surrounded by his own land grants the land and reserves the close, the implied right to a way of necessity to and from the close over the land operates by way of re-grant from the grantee of the land, and is limited by the necessity which created it.”

Will Easement of Necessity Ripen into a Prescriptive Easement?

In other words-

• Can one claim ‘easement of necessity’ and ‘easement by prescription’ with respect to a (same) way?  
• Does a way  that started with minimum width (say a foot-path) under the claim ‘easement of necessity’, and continued with a higher width (so that cars can be taken), in the course of time,  for more than 20 years, will yield or bring-in ‘easement by prescription’?

We find answer in negative form in Tanba Nusaji Mahajan v, Pandhari Mahajan, 2004 (6) BomCR 782, 2004 (4) MhLJ 109. It is held as under:

• “10. However, a way of necessity is distinguished from the right of way acquired by prescription and cannot ripen into a prescriptive easement so long as the necessity continues. A way of necessity arises by virtue of conditions entirely different from easement of way created by prescription. The former arises by implication of law out of the necessities of the case and is based upon principle of law which negative the existence of a way by continuous adverse user. The acquisition of way by adverse user is based upon the theory of the hostility of the use to the title of the person over whose lands it is acquired, while a way of necessity is based upon an implication of an intended grant and the use of it is based entirely upon such implication or consent to its use.”

Read: Prescriptive Rights in Easements and Adverse Possession – Inchoate until Title thereof is Upheld by a Competent Court

“In or upon, or in respect of, certain other land not his own”

Easement is a right to do something in or upon land of another. Even if the easement involves ‘construction’, it should be of another; because, Sec. 4: Explanation reads: “land” includes also things permanently attached to earth.

If the subsisting-construction is made by, or it belongs to, dominant owner, no doubt, there will be no easement. [1987 (2) Ker LT 1037 (Bund); AIR 1915 PC 131 (Jetty); AIR 1971 SC 1878].

• Vasudeva Prabhu   Madhava Prabhu, AIR 1993 Ker 68 (no easement in co-ownership property)
• Venkateswaraswamivari Devasthanam v. Velidandla Kanakalakshmi, AIR 1976 AP 250
• Sumanlal Bhagwandas v. Naginlal Bhagwandas, AIR 1967 Guj 87,
• Raychand Vanmali-das v. Maneklal Mansukhbhai, AIR 1946 Bom 266
• Marghabhai Vallavbhai v. Motibhai Mithabhai, AIR 1932 Bom 513.

‘Beneficial Enjoyment‘ in Easement includes “Removal and Appropriation“

The Explanation to the definition of Easement (in Sec. 4) reads as under:

• “Explanation – In the first and second clauses of this section, the expression “land” includes also things permanently attached to the earth;
• the expression “beneficial enjoyment” includes also possible convenience, remote advantage, and even a mere amenity;
• and the expression “to do something” includes removal and appropriation by the dominant owner, for the beneficial enjoyment of the dominant heritage, of any part of the soil of the servient heritage, or anything growing or subsisting thereon.”

Easement Not Allows to ‘Enjoy’ After Making a Construction or Cultivation.

Easement is a Right for ‘enjoyment’ of things ‘subsisting’.  It is a Right for limited enjoyment, and advantages arising from its situation; and it does not allow to build-and-enjoy. It is clear from Sec. 7 which indicates that easement is only a right for limited enjoyment of (a) land and (b) advantages arising from its situation. It is also clear from the Scheme of the Act as shown under:

• S. 4 An easement is a ‘right which the owner or occupier of certain land possesses’ “as such”
• S.4: Illustn. (d):  Graze cattle, take water and fish out from the tank, take timber from wood, take fallen leaves for manuring .
• S. 7: Only a right for limited enjoyment of (a) land & (b) advantages arising from its situation. (It is stated:  Easements are restrictions of (a) Exclusive right (of owner) to enjoy immovable property, (b) Rights to advantages arising from its situation)
• S. 12 An easement is acquired by owner an immovable property.
• S. 17: Not a right – to tend to total destruction of the servient tenement. (2003 (1) KLT 320)
• S. 21 An easement must not be used for any purpose not connected with enjoyment of the dominant heritage.
• S. 22: Exercise easement – least onerous to servient tenement (Illustn.- b: can cut thatching- grass, not to destroy plants)
• S. 23: Not to make additional burden (Illus.- b: not to advance eaves; Illus.- d: not another pollution)
• S. 24: Secure full enjoyment, but cause as little inconvenience.  Illus. (a) easement to lay pipes
• S. 27: Servient owner is entitled to use – consistent with  easement
• S. 28: Easements of  necessity, Right of way, Other prescriptive rights not to enlarge purpose, accustomed user etc.
• S. 29: Dominant owner Cannot substantially increase an easement
• S. 31: If excessive user – servient owner may obstruct the user.
• S. 43: Permanent change in the dominant heritage and the burden increased – easement is extinguished

Easement and Grant

The term ‘Grant’ is used in law to denote-

• A generic term to mean ‘transfer’ of immovable property (e.g., sale, lease, gift etc.).
• But, it will not be a ‘transfer’ of property; and remain as a concession, permission, settlement, grant of easement etc., if it is used in place of ‘transfer’, purposefully, to denote a lesser right.
• Present, aid, help etc., and the act of a settlor of trust, or of donor of a charity.
• A technical term to denote conditional-transfer of lands by sovereign especially when it is purposefully used to differentiate from ‘transfer’ of property.
• More than a licence (which does not create an estate or interest) and less than an outright and unconditional ‘transfer’ of property.

Characteristics of ‘Grant’

• Usually it denotes a grant by deed.
• It can be with or without consideration.
• Unless specifically specified, it is creation of an ‘interest’ in property (in case of easement, no interest is created; but only a right of enjoyment). 
• As long as the conditions are fulfilled, grant is usually irrevocable.
• Conditions can also be fixed to limit the period of grant.
• Inferior interest, out of an interest retained by the grantor, e.g. the grant of a lease of land by the person holding the freehold. (Collins Dictionary of Law).

Doctrine of ‘Designed Purpose‘ and Easement of Necessity

Easement of necessity can be claimed for effective user of a property, in the ordinary course for its designed purpose, if it is ‘essentially necessary’(with required width – for taking vehicles also – in case of a way).

Read Blog: Extent of Easement (Width of Way) in Easement of Necessity, Quasi Easement and Implied Grant

‘Grant’ – Salmond on Jurisprudence

What is ‘grant’ is stated in Salmond’s Jurisprudence, 12th Edition, at pages 338-339, under the heading ‘The Classes of Agreements’. According to Salmond  a grant–

• ” is an agreement“,
• “creates a right“
• is NOT “a right in Personam between the parties to it”,
• examples – “grants of leases, easements, charges, patents, franchises, licences and so forth“.

Salmond distinguishes ‘grant’ from other legal concepts as under.

• “…. A contract is an agreement which creates an obligation or a right in personam between the parties to it.
• A grant is an agreement which creates a right of any other description; examples being grants of leases, easements, charges, patents, franchises, licences and so forth.
• An agreement which transfers a right may be termed generically an assignment. On which extinguishes a right is a release, discharge, or surrender.” (Quoted in H. Anraj v. Government of Tamil Nadu  (& Shri Dipak Dhar v. The State of West Bengal), AIR 1986 SC 63: (1986) 1 SCC 414.)

Taken from: What is Easement? Does Right of Easement Allow to ‘Enjoy’ After Making a Construction?

Should Date of Beginning of 20 Years be pleaded?

In Justiniano Antao v. Bernadette B. Pereira, (2005) 1 SCC 471, it was pointed out as follows:

• “In order to establish a right by way of prescription to the detriment of the other party, one has to show that the incumbent has been using the land as of right peacefully and openly and without any interruption for the last 20 years. There should be specific pleadings and categorical evidence in general and specifically that since what date to which date one is using the access for the last 20 years.”

Kerala High Court, in Soman Nair v. Manoj Kumar, 2014 (P. Bhavadasan, J.) distinguished the decision Justiniano Antao v. Bernadette B. Pereira, observing as under:

• “12. A reading of the decision reported in Justiniano Antao’s case (cited supra) would reveal that the dictum has to be read in the context of facts of the case. That was a case where the Apex Court found that till 1984, the claimant was using another way and only thereafter the claim over the way through servient tenement was made. A vague assertion had been made in the said case that the pathway has been used for a long time. It was under those circumstances, the Apex Court had occasion to hold as mentioned above.
• 13. In the case on hand, the definite pleading as could be culled out from the written statement and counter claim is that defendants as well as their predecessors-in-interest have been using the pathway in question for a long time in fact for more than 30 years and this is only means of access  to their property.”

Pappachan v. Alex, ILR 2023-3 Ker 523; 2023-5 KHC 10, distinguished the decision Justiniano Antao v. Bernadette B. Pereira, observing as under:

• “24. In Justiniano Antao (supra) there was no pleading by the plaintiff that she used the pathway in question for a period of 20 years. Holding that in the absence of such a pleading which is elementary and essential to claim a prescriptive easement right, the Apex Court held that the date from which the right of way was started to use should have been pleaded. The pleadings set forth by the appellants in this case certainly constitute sufficient pleadings to claim easement by prescription. It is true that they did not plead as to from which date they started using that pathway. They, however, pleaded that for the last more than 35 years they have been using that pathway. In the light of such a specific pleadings the law laid down in Justiniano Antao [(2005) 1 SCC 471] does not disentitle the appellants from claiming the relief.”

Prescriptive easement is created by adverse user, by the Hostile use

It is held in Kantaben Parsottamdas v. Ganshyambhai Ramkrishan Purohit, AIR 2022  Guj  146, as under:

• “15. It is pertinent to note that the prescriptive easement is created by adverse user, by the hostile use to the title of servient owner, whereas easement of necessity is based upon the grant either express or implied.”

Easement by Prescription – ‘Acquires’ by “Hostile or Notorious Act”

Chapsibhai Dhanjibhai Danad vs Purushotram, 1971 AIR 1878, it was pointed out as under:

• “In Ravachand v. Maniklal (ILR 1946 Bom. 184), it was held that an easement by prescription under ss. 12 and 15 of the Act is in fact an assertion of a hostile claim of certain rights over another man’s property and in order to acquire the easement the person who asserts the hostile claim must prove that he had the consciousness to exercise that hostile claim on a property which is not his own and where no such consciousness is proved he cannot establish a prescriptive acquisition of the fight.”

In Raychand Vanmalidas vs Maneklal Mansukhbhai, (1946) 48 BomLR 25, it was held as under:

• “In any case it must be shown that the right was enjoyed as an easement, that is, as an assertion of a hostile claim of certain limited rights over somebody else’s property. Such an assertion cannot be held proved without satisfactory proof of the requisite consciousness. Prescriptive easement, as opposed to easement by grant, is always hostile. It is in fact an assertion of a hostile claim of certain rights over another man’s property and as such it resembles in some respects the claim to ownership by adverse possession of property; both are of hostile origin and are, therefore, prescriptive rights obtained by adverse enjoyment for a certain period, the difference being that while in the case of adverse possession the possessor must assert his own ownership, in the case of easement he must assert limited rights of user on a property and acknowledge its ownership in some one else. It must, therefore, follow, in my opinion, that a person who asserts such a hostile claim must prove that he had the consciousness of exercising that hostile claim on a property which is not his own, and where no such consciousness is proved, he cannot prove the prescriptive acquisition of the right”.

Easement by prescription is ‘acquired’ by ‘prescriptive’ user. It should not have been by permission or agreement. In case of easement, law requires pleading and proof – that the right claimed was enjoyed independent of any express permission (Bachhaj Nahar Vs. Nilima Mandal, AIR 2009 SC 1103).

It is held in Sree Swayam Prakash Ashramam v. G. Anandavally Amma, AIR 2010 SC 62, that the acquisition of easement by prescription may be classified under the head of implied grant; for, all prescription presupposes a grant.

Easement-by-Prescription – ‘Grant’or Acquisition by “Hostile or Notorious Act”

The basis of every right of easement is theoretically a grant from the servient-owner. Grant is presumed in easement by prescription, from long and continued user. Is there incongruity (in easement by prescription) between ‘grant’ (on one part) and ‘acquisition’ of easement by “prescription” which suggests ‘adverse’ and ‘hostile or notorious’ user (on the other part)?

• The answer would be that the ‘grant’ herein is only a “presumption in law”; and virtually, easement by prescription has to be acquired by hostile and/or notorious acts.

Tanba Nusaji Mahajan v. Pandhari Mahajan, 2004 (6) BomCR 782, 2004 (4) MhLJ 109 lays down the legal position accepted by Indian law, clearly, as under:

• “The acquisition of way by adverse user is based upon the theory of the hostility of the use to the title of the person over whose lands it is acquired, while a way of necessity is based upon an implication of an intended grant and the use of it is based entirely upon such implication or consent to its use.”

Should plaintiff schedule Servient Heritage?

In P. V. Abdul Majeed Hajiv.  Shorabi, 2020-4 KHC 53; 2020-4 KLT 629 the Kerala High Court answered the question with reference to Order VII Rule 3 CPC.  It is held as under:

• “4. … For claiming prescriptive right of easement, the servient heritage over which the claim is raised should be specifically and separately scheduled in the plaint so as to grant a decree in accordance with the mandate under Order VII Rule 3 CPC.”

In Kizhakke Neliyarambath Rafeek v. Thavararakkattil Choyikutty Master, 2021-5 KHC 592; 2021-5 KLT 574, it is held as under:

• “12. On a reading of the common judgment of the first appellate court dated 18.6.2019, this Court is of the view that the court correctly analysed the points for consideration in the impugned judgment. The first appellate court mainly arrived at the following conclusions:-
• …. The pathway claimed by the plaintiff therein alone is scheduled as schedule ‘B’. In a suit for easement right, the servient heritage and dominant heritage must be shown in the plaint as separate schedules.”

Dominant Owner  Cannot Dispute The Title Of The Servient Owner

It is trite law that the dominant owner  cannot dispute the title of the servient owner (Reghuprasad v. M.  Raghunathan, AIR 2020 Ker 16). 

In Omana v. Reji Kurian, AIR 2022 Ker 91, it is held (K. Babu, J.) as under:

• “19. Yet another aspect that requires consideration is that the pleadings of the defendants in the written statement go in the line, denying the title of the plaintiff over the ‘B’ schedule way. One of the fundamental ingredients in a claim of easement is the admission of the title of the servient owner by the dominant owner. On this ground alone, the claim of the defendants over plaint ‘B’ schedule property by way of easement by prescription must fail.”

Read Blogs:

• Easement Simplified
• What is Easement? Does Right of Easement Allow to ‘Enjoy’ After Making a Construction?
• One Year Interruption or Obstruction will not affect Prescriptive Easement
• What is “period ending within two years next before the institution of the suit”?
• Will Easement of Necessity Ripen or Convert into a Prescriptive Easement?
• Is the Basis of Every Easement, Theoretically, a Grant
• Extent of Easement (Width of Way) in Easement of Necessity, Quasi Easement and Implied Grant
• Easement by Prescription – Grant or ‘Acquiring’ by “Hostile Act”
• Can an Easement-Way be Altered by the Owner of the Land?
• Village Pathways and Right to Bury are not Easements.
• Custom & Customary Easements in Indian Law
• Prescriptive Rights in Easements and Adverse Possession – Inchoate until Title thereof is Upheld by a Competent Court
• ‘Additional Burden Loses Lateral Support’ – Incorrect Proposition

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Read in this Cluster  (Click on the topic):

Book No, 1 – Civil Procedure Code

• Civil Rights and Jurisdiction of Civil Courts
• Res Judicata and Constructive Res Judicata
• Order II, Rule 2 CPC – Not to Vex Defendants Twice
• Pleadings Should be Specific; Why?
• Pleadings in Defamation Suits
• UNDUE INFLUENCE and PLEADINGS thereof in Indian Law
• PLEADINGS IN ELECTION MATTERS
• Declaration and Injunction
• Law on Summons to Defendants and Witnesses
• Notice to Produce Documents in Civil Cases
• Production of Documents: Order 11, Rule 14 & Rule 12
• Sec. 91 CPC and Suits Against Wrongful Acts
• Remedies Under Sec. 92 CPC
• Mandatory Injunction – Law and Principles
• INJUNCTION is a ‘Possessory Remedy’ in Indian Law
• Interrogatories: When Court Allows, When Rejects?
• Decree in OI R8 CPC-Suit & Eo-Nomine Parties
• Pecuniary & Subject-Matter Jurisdiction of Civil Courts
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent Interests
• INJUNCTION is a ‘Possessory Remedy’ in Indian Law
• Doctrine of Substantial Representation in a Suit by or against an Association
• Who are Necessary Parties, Proper Parties and Pro Forma Parties in Suits
• What is Partnership, in Law? How to Sue a Firm?
• ‘Legal Representatives’, Not ‘Legal Heirs’ to be Impleaded on Death of Plaintiff/Defendant
• Powers and Duties of Commissioners to Make Local Investigations, Under CPC
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting Onus
• Is it Mandatory to Set Aside the Commission Report – Where a Second Commissioner is Appointed?
• Can a Commission be Appointed to Find Out the Physical Possession of a Property?
• Rules on Burden of proof and Adverse Inference
• Pendente Lite Transferee Cannot Resist or Obstruct Execution of a Decree
• Family Settlement or Family Arrangement in Law
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian Law

Power of attorney

• No Adjudication If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently Stamped
• Notary Attested Power-of-Attorney Sufficient for Registration
• Permission when a Power of Attorney Holder Files Suit
• If Power of Attorney himself Executes the Document, S. 33 Registration Act will NOT be attracted
• Is Registered Power of Attorney Necessary for Registration of a Deed? No.

Title, ownership and Possession

• Sale Deeds Without Consideration – Void
• Recovery of Possession Based on Title and on Earlier Possession
• Title and Ownership in Indian Law
• Does ‘Abandonment’ Give rise to a Recognised Right in Indian Law?
• POSSESSION is a Substantive Right in Indian Law
• 22nd Law Commission  Report on ‘Law on Adverse Possession’
• Government of Kerala v. Joseph – Law on Adverse Possession Against Government
• How to Plead Adverse Possession? Adverse Possession: An Evolving Concept
• Adverse Possession: Burden to Plead Sabotaged
• Does ‘Abandonment’ Give rise to a Recognised Right in Indian Law?
• When ‘Possession Follows Title’; ‘Title Follows Possession’?
• Ultimate Ownership of All Property Vests in State; It is an Incident of Sovereignty.
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• Preemption is a Very Weak Right; For, Property Right is a Constitutional & Human Right
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent Interests
• Family Settlement or Family Arrangement in Law
• INJUNCTION is a ‘Possessory Remedy’ in Indian Law
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian Law
• Kesar Bai v. Genda Lal – Does Something Remain Untold?
• Grant in Law

Adverse Possession

• How to Plead Adverse Possession? Adverse Possession: An Evolving Concept
• Adverse Possession: Burden to Plead Sabotaged
• Does ‘Abandonment’ Give rise to a Recognised Right in Indian Law?
• When ‘Possession Follows Title’; ‘Title Follows Possession’?
• Government of Kerala v. Joseph – Law on Adverse Possession Against Government
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian Law
• Ouster and Dispossession in Adverse Possession

Principles and Procedure

• Doctrines on Ultra Vires, Rule of Law, Judicial Review, Nullification of Mandamus, and Removing the BASIS of the Judgment
• Will – Probate and Letters of Administration
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court
• Effect of Not Cross-Examining a Witness & Effect of Not Facing Complete Cross-Examination by the Witness
• Suggestions & Admissions by Counsel, in Cross Examination to Witnesses
• Best Evidence Rule in Indian Law
• Declaration and Injunction
• Pleadings Should be Specific; Why?
• Does Alternate Remedy Bar Civil Suits and Writ Petitions?
• Void, Voidable, Ab Initio Void, and Sham Transactions
• Can Courts Award Interest on Equitable Grounds?
• Natural Justice – Not an Unruly Horse
• ‘Sound-mind’ and ‘Unsound-Mind’
• Prescriptive Rights – Inchoate until the Title thereof is Upheld by a Competent Court
• Can a Party to Suit Examine Opposite Party, as of Right?
• Forfeiture of Earnest Money and Reasonable Compensation
• Doctrine of ‘Right to be Forgotten’ in Indian Law

Admission, Relevancy and Proof

• Relevancy, Admissibility and Proof of Documents
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on ‘Admission’
• Proof and Truth of Documents
• Proof of Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting Onus
• Production, Admissibility & Proof Of Documents
• Modes of Proof – Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Marking Documents Without Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Substantive Documents, and Documents used for Refreshing Memory and Contradicting 
• Oral Evidence on Contents of Document, Irrelevant

Land Laws/ Transfer of Property Act

• Does ‘Pandaravaka Pattom’ in Kerala Denote Full-Ownership?
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent Interests
• Vested Remainder and Contingent Remainder
• Vested interest and Contingent Interest
• Ultimate Ownership of All Property Vests in State; It is an Incident of Sovereignty.
• Land Acquired Cannot be Returned – Even if it is Not Used for the Purpose Acquired
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• FERA, 1973 And Transfer of Immovable Property by a Foreigner
• Marumakkathayam – A System of Law and Way of Life Prevailed in Kerala
• Relevant provisions of Kerala Land Reforms Act in a Nutshell
• Land Tenures, and History of Land Derivation, in Kerala
• Government is the OWNER of (Leasehold) Plantation Lands in Kerala.
• Sale Deeds Without Consideration – Void
• Law on Acquisition of Private Plantation Land in Kerala
• Law on SUCCESSION CERTIFICATE and LEGAL HEIRSHIP CERTIFICATE
• Grant in Law

Evidence Act – General

• Evidence in Court – General Principles
• Expert Evidence and Appreciation of Evidence
• How to Contradict a Witness under Sec. 145, Evidence Act
• Rules on Burden of proof and Adverse Inference
• Best Evidence Rule in Indian Law
• What is Collateral Purpose?
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting Onus
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court
• Effect of Not Cross-Examining a Witness & Effect of Not Facing Complete Cross Examination by the Witness
• Suggestions & Admissions by Counsel, in Cross Examination to Witnesses
• Modes of Proof – Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered Will?
• Significance of Scientific Evidence in Judicial Process
• Polygraphy, Narco Analysis and Brain Mapping Tests
• What is Section 27 Evidence Act – Recovery or Discovery?
• How ‘Discovery’ under Section 27, Evidence Act, Proved?
• Pictorial Testimony Theory and Silent Witnesses Theory

Sec. 65B

• Sec. 65B, Evidence Act: Arjun Paditrao Criticised.
• Sec. 65B Evidence Act Simplified
• ‘STATEMENTS’ alone can be proved by ‘CERTIFICATE’ u/s. 65B
• Sec. 65B,  Evidence Act: Certificate forms
• Certificate is Required Only for ‘Computer Output’; Not for ‘Electronic Records’: Arjun Panditrao Explored.
• How to Prove ‘Whatsap Messages’, ‘Facebook’ and ‘Website’ in Courts?

Law on Documents

• Production, Admissibility & Proof Of Documents
• Relevancy, Admissibility and Proof of Documents
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on ‘Admission’
• Time Limit for Registration of Documents
• Registration of Documents Executed out of India
• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered Will?
• Are RTI Documents Admissible in Evidence as ‘Public Documents’?
• Oral Evidence on Contents of Document, Irrelevant
• Effect of Marking Documents Without Objection – Do Contents Stand Proved?
• Proof of Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Notary-Attested Documents: Presumption, Rebuttable
• What is Collateral Purpose?
• No Application Needed for Filing or Admitting Copy
• Presumptions on Registered Documents & Truth of Contents
• Notice to Produce Documents in Civil Cases
• Production of Documents: Order 11, Rule 14 & Rule 12
• Modes of Proof – Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Proof and Truth of Documents
• Secondary Evidence of Documents & Objections to Admissibility – How & When?
• 30 Years Old Documents and Presumption of Truth of Contents, under Sec. 90 Evidence Act
• Unstamped & Unregistered Documents and Collateral Purpose
• Adjudication as to Proper Stamp under Stamp Act
• Marking Documents Without Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Cancellation of Sale Deeds and Settlement Deeds & Powers of Sub-Registrar in Registering Deeds
• Substantive Documents, and Documents used for Refreshing Memory and Contradicting 
• How to Contradict a Witness under Sec. 145, Evidence Act
• Visual and Audio Evidence (Including Photographs, Cassettes, Tape-recordings, Films, CCTV Footage, CDs, e-mails, Chips, Hard-discs, Pen-drives)
• Pictorial Testimony Theory and Silent Witnesses Theory
• No Adjudication Needed If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently Stamped
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific Performance
• Impounding of Documents – When Produced; Cannot Wait Till it is Exhibited

Interpretation

• Interpretation of Statutes – Literal Rule, Mischief Rule and Golden Rule
• Interpretation of Documents – Literal Rule, Mischief Rule and Golden Rule
• Interpretation of Wills
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court

Contract Act

• ‘Sound-mind’ and ‘Unsound-Mind’ in Indian Civil Laws
• Forfeiture of Earnest Money and Reasonable Compensation
• Who has to fix Damages in Tort and Contract?
• UNDUE INFLUENCE and PLEADINGS thereof in Indian Law
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific Performance

Law on Damages

• Law on Damages
• Who has to fix Damages in Tort and Contract?
• Law on Damages in Defamation Cases
• Pleadings in Defamation Suits

Easement

• Easement Simplified
• What is Easement? Does Right of Easement Allow to ‘Enjoy’ After Making a Construction?
• Prescriptive Rights – Inchoate until the Title thereof is Upheld by a Competent Court
• Will Easement of Necessity Ripen into a Prescriptive Easement?
• What is “period ending within two years next before the institution of the suit”?
• Is the Basis of Every Easement, Theoretically, a Grant
• Extent of Easement (Width of Way) in Easement of Necessity, Quasi Easement and Implied Grant
• Can Easement of Necessity and of Grant be Claimed in a Suit (Alternatively)?
• “Implied Grant” in Law of Easements
• Can an Easement-Way be Altered by the Owner of the Land?
• Village Pathways and Right to Bury are not Easements.
• Custom & Customary Easements in Indian Law
• ‘Additional Burden Loses Lateral Support’ – Incorrect Proposition
• Grant in Law

Stamp Act & Registration

• Cancellation of Sale Deeds and Settlement Deeds & Powers of Sub-Registrar in Registering Deeds
• Time-Limit For Adjudication of Unstamped Documents, before Collector
• Time Limit for Registration of Documents
• Registration of Documents Executed out of India
• LAW ON INSUFFICIENTLY STAMPED DOCUMENTS 
• Adjudication as to Proper Stamp under Stamp Act
• Unstamped & Unregistered Documents and Collateral Purpose
• Impounding of Documents, When Produced; Cannot Wait Till it is Exhibited
• No Adjudication Needed If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently Stamped
• Notary Attested Power-of-Attorney Sufficient for Registration

Will

• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered Will?Interpretation of Wills
• Interpretation of Inconsistent Clauses in a Will
• Will – Probate and Letters of Administration
• Executors of Will – Duties & their Removal
• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered Will?
• How to Write a Will? Requirements of a Valid Will
• When Execution of a Will is ‘Admitted’ by the Opposite Side, Should it be ‘Proved’?

Arbitration

• N.N. Global Mercantile (P) Ltd. v. Indo Unique Flame Ltd. and Ground Realities of Indian Situation
• What are Non-Arbitrable Disputes? When a Dispute is Not Referred to Arbitration in spite of Arbitration Clause
• Termination or Nullity of Contract Will Not Cease Efficacy of the Arbitration Clause
• No Valid Arbitration Agreement ‘Exists’ – Can Arbitration Clause be Invoked?

Divorce

• Validity of Foreign Divorce Decrees in India
• Is ‘Irretrievable Brake-down of Marriage’, a Valid Ground for Divorce in India?
• Foreign Divorce Judgment against Christians having Indian Domicile

Negotiable Instruments Act

• “Otherwise Through an Account” in Section 142, NI Act
• Where to file Cheque Bounce Cases (Jurisdiction of Court – to file NI Act Complaint)?
• Cheque Dishonour Case against a Company, Firm or Society
• What is ‘Cognizance’ in Law

Book No. 2: A Handbook on Constitutional Issues

• Judicial & Legislative Activism in India: Principles and Instances
• Can Legislature Overpower Court Decisions by an Enactment?
• Separation of Powers: Who Wins the Race – Legislature or Judiciary?
• Kesavananda Bharati Case: Never Ending Controversy
• Mullaperiyar Dam: Disputes and Adjudication of Legal Issues
• Article 370: Is There Little Chance for Supreme Court Interference
• Maratha Backward Community Reservation: SC Fixed Limit at 50%.
• Polygraphy, Narco Analysis and Brain Mapping Tests
• CAA Challenge: Divergent Views
• FERA, 1973 And Transfer of Immovable Property by a Foreigner
• Doctrine of ‘Right to be Forgotten’ in Indian Law
• Doctrines on Ultra Vires and Removing the BASIS of the Judgment, in ED Director’s Tenure Extension Case (Dr. Jaya Thakur Vs. Union of India)
• Dr. Jaya Thakur v. Union of India – Mandamus (Given in a Case) Cannot be Annulled by Changing the Law
• Art. 370 – Turns the Constitution on Its Head

Religious issues

• Secularism and Art. 25 & 26 of the Indian Constitution
• Secularism & Freedom of Religion in Indian Panorama
• ‘Ban on Muslim Women to Enter Mosques, Unconstitutional’
• No Reservation to Muslim and Christian SCs/STs (Dalits) Why?
• Parsi Women – Excommunication for Marrying Outside
• Knanaya Endogamy & Constitution of India
• Sabarimala Review Petitions & Reference to 9-Judge Bench
• SABARIMALA REVIEW and Conflict in Findings between Shirur Mutt Case & Durgah Committee Case
• Ayodhya Disputes: M. Siddiq case –Pragmatic Verdict

Book No. 3: Common Law of CLUBS and SOCIETIES in India

• General
  • General Features
  • Bye Laws Fundamental
  • Effect of Registration of Societies and Incorporation of Clubs
  • Societies and Branches
• Property & Trust
  • Vesting of Property in Societies and Clubs
  • Incidents of Trust in Clubs and Societies
• Juristic Personality
  • Juristic Personality of Societies and Clubs
  • Legal Personality of Trustees and Office Bearers
• Suits
  • Suits and Criminal Complaints By and Against a Company
  • Suits By or Against Societies, Clubs
  • Court’s Jurisdiction to Interfere in the Internal Affairs
  • How to Sue Societies, Clubs and Companies
• Amendment and Dissolution
  • Amendment of Bye laws of Societies and Clubs
  • Dissolution of Societies and Clubs
• Rights and Management
  • Rights & Liabilities of Members of Clubs and Societies
  • Individual Membership Rights in Societies & Clubs
  • Management – Powers of General Body and Governing Body
  • Expulsion of Members & Removal of Office-Bearers
  • Law on Meetings: An Overview
• Election
  • Election & Challenge in Societies and Clubs
  • Court Interference in Election Process
• State Actions
  • State-Interference in Affairs of Societies & Clubs

Book No. 4: Common Law of TRUSTS in India

• General Principles
  • What is Trust in Law?
  • Classification of Trusts
  • Public & Private Trusts in India.
  • Trust is ‘An Obligation’; Not a Legal Entity
  • Indian Law Does Not Accept Salmond, as to Dual Ownership
• Dedication and Vesting
  • Dedication of Property in Public Trusts
  • Vesting of Property in Trusts
  • Incidents of Trust in Clubs and Societies
• Trustees and Management
  • Trustees and Administration of Public Trusts
  • Alienation of Public Trust Property
  • Extinction, Discharge, Revocation, etc. of Public Trusts
• Breach of Trust
  • Breach of Trust and Removal of Trustees
• Suits by or against Trusts
  • Suits By or Against Trusts and Trustees
  • Remedies Under Sec. 92 CPC
• Law on Hindu Religious Endowments
  • Philosophy of Idol Worship
  • Is an Idol a Perpetual Minor?
  • Hindu Temples & Law of Trusts
  • Public & Private Trusts
  • Law of Mutts and Other Hindu Endowments
  • Shebaits & Mahants and Law of Trustees
• Temples, Gurudwaras, Churches and Mosques – General
  • Legal Personality of Temples, Gurudwaras, Churches and Mosques
• Constitutional Principles
  • Secularism and Art. 25 & 26 of the Indian Constitution
  • Secularism & Freedom of Religion in Indian Panorama
  • ‘Muslim Women: Ban to Enter Mosques, Is it Unconstitutional
  • Parsi Women Excommunication, Unconstitutional.
  • Knanaya Endogamy & Constitution of India
  • State & Court – Protectors of All Charities
• Ayodhya and Sabarimala Disputes
  • Ayodhya Disputes: M. Siddiq case – Pragmatic Verdict
  • Sabarimala Review Petitions & Reference to 9-Judge Bench
  • SABARIMALA REVIEW and Conflict in Findings between Shirur Mutt Case & Durgah Committee Case
• General
  • Public Trusts and (State) Endowments/Trusts Acts
  • Public Trusts and Indian Trusts Act – An Overview
  • Business by Charitable Trusts & Institutions