Tharammel Peethambaran v. T. Ushakrishnan (2026): A Classic Decision on Secondary Evidence

Also Read: Marking Secondary Evidence Without Objection: Two Apparently Divergent Views on Waiver and the Mode of Proof

Saji Koduvath, Advocate, Kottayam.

Two (Diametrically Opposite) Views on Raising Objection to Mode of Proof of Documents

• First: Objection as to irregular or insufficient mode of proof of a document (such as secondary evidence) should be raised at the time while it is marked as an exhibit; and its failure amounts to waiver. Such objection cannot be allowed to be raised at any subsequent stage.
  • (Classic Decision on this view is – R.V.E. Venkatchalla Gounder v. Arulmighu Viswesaraswamy and V.P. Temple, (2003) 8 SCC 752, R.C. Lahoti, Ashok Bhan, JJ.)
• Second: Secondary evidence is NOT admissible until the non-production of the original is accounted for – that is, until the foundational facts of Section 65 are  established. The court has also an obligation to decide the question of admissibility before making it as a secondary evidence. That is, mere marking, or marking on admission, does not automatically prove its contents.
  • (Latest decision on this view is – Tharammel Peethambaran v. T. Ushakrishnan,  AIR 2026 SC 938, Pankaj Mithal, S.V.N. Bhatti, JJ.)

Crux of Tharammel Peethambaran v. T. Ushakrishnan,  AIR 2026 SC 938

1. Secondary evidence is NOT admissible –

• until the non-production of the original is accounted for –
• that is, until the foundational facts or  the conditions of Section 65, Evidence Act are  established.
• The court relied on –
  • H. Siddiqui (D) By Lrs. v. A. Ramalingam AIR (2011) SC 1492
  • Rakesh Mohindra v. Anita Beri, (2016) 16 SCC 483.
  • Ashok Dulichand v. Madahavlal Dube and Another (1975) 4 SCC 664; 
  • Chandra v. M. Thangamuthu, (2010) 9 SCC 712.
• This view is also found in:
  • LIC v. Ram Pal Singh Bisen  [(2010) 4 SCC 491   
  • Yeshoda v. Shoba Ram   AIR 2007 SC 1721
  • State of Rajasthan v. Khemraj  [(2000) 9 SCC 241 : AIR 2000 SC 1759] ,  
  • Mal Singhvi v. Anand Purohith 1988 (Supp) SCC 604.
  • Roman Catholic Mission v. State of Madras  [AIR 1966 SC 1457].  

2. The court has an obligation to decide the question of admissibility before making it as a secondary evidence.

• That is, mere admission of a document, or 
  • marking it on admission, 
• does not dispense with the requirement of proving it in accordance with the law or
• mere marking, or marking on admission, does not automatically prove its contents.

Read Similar Articles •• Secondary Evidence of Documents & Objections to Admissibility  – How &  When? •• Contents of a Document are to be Proved in Court by Producing Original or Secondary  Evidence •• Newspaper Reports are ‘Hearsay Secondary  Evidence’ •• Proof of  Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When? •• Admissibility, Substantive Evidence and Probative Value – General Principles •• Modes of Proof of Documents – Admission, Direct Evidence, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc. •• Best Evidence Rule in Indian Law

Facts in a Nutshell

Following are the facts of the decision in Tharammel Peethambaran v. T. Ushakrishnan,  AIR 2026 SC 938:

• Plaint schedule property was alienated by the defendant.
• Plaintiff claimed it to be joint family property.
• The plaintiff challenged the authority of the defendant to alienate.
• The plaintiff contended that there was no valid Power of Attorney in favour of the defendant.
• Only a notarised photocopy of the alleged Power of Attorney was produced.
• The original document was not placed on record.
• No foundational evidence was given for leading secondary evidence.

The Trial Court decreed the suit finding that the the Power of Attorney was not proved.

The Trial Court found:

• If the procedure under Sections 65 and 66 of the Evidence Act is not followed, a photostat copy does not satisfy the requirements of secondary evidence.
• The non-marking of the original of the PoA, coupled with non-compliance with Sections 65 and 66 of the Evidence Act, would render the assertions on the document untenable.

The First Appellate Court reversed the Trial Court’s findings, accepting the PoA.

The High Court restored the findings of the Trial Court.

The Supreme Court of India accepted the views of the High Court and dismissed the Appeal.

Important Findings by the Apex Court

• “19. The crux of the matter depends on whether Exh. B-2 can be treated as documentary evidence warranting interpretation of the clauses and the alleged contradictions with Exh. A-3 and A-4. Exh. B-2 is a photocopy, or a mechanical copy, of the purported PoA. This, therefore, implies that Exh. B-2 is, at best, secondary evidence. Secondary evidence is evidence that proves the contents of an original document through a medium that is one step removed from the source. Section 63 of the Indian Evidence Act provides an exhaustive list of what constitutes secondary evidence. This includes certified copies, copies made from the original by mechanical processes ensuring accuracy, copies compared with such copies, counterparts of documents against parties who did not execute them, and oral accounts of the contents given by a person who has seen the document.
• 20. The broad parameters summarising the procedure to be followed for introducing secondary evidence are reiterated and read thus:
• 20.1 The fundamental principle of the Indian Evidence Act is that facts have to be established by primary evidence.
  • Jagmail Singh v. Karamjit Singh, (2020) 5 SCC 178. (Para 14) 
• Section 64 mandates that documents must be proved by primary evidence, which is considered the “best evidence”.
• Primary evidence is the rule, while secondary evidence is an exception admissible only in the absence of primary evidence. A party is generally required to produce the best evidence available; so long as the superior evidence (the original) is within a party’s possession or reach, they cannot introduce inferior proof (secondary evidence).
  • Smt. J. Yashoda v. K. Shobha Rani (2007) 5 SCC 730
• 20.2 Before secondary evidence can be admitted, the party relying on it must lay a factual foundation.
• This involves two steps:
  • First, the party must prove that the original document actually existed and was executed.
  • Secondly, the party must establish valid reasons as to why the original cannot be furnished.
  • Kaliya v. State of Madhya Pradesh, (2013) 10 SCC 758
• 20.3 Secondary evidence is inadmissible until the non-production of the original is accounted for in a manner that brings the case within the specific exceptions provided in Section 65.
  • H. Siddiqui (D) By Lrs. v. A. Ramalingam AIR (2011) SC 1492
• If the original itself is found to be inadmissible through failure of the party who files it to prove it to be valid, the same party is not entitled to introduce secondary evidence of its contents. Smt. J. Yashoda v. K. Shobha Rani (2007) 5 SCC 730
• 20.4 Section 65 of the Evidence Act is exhaustive and states the specific circumstances under which secondary evidence is permissible.
• To introduce secondary evidence, a party must satisfy the conditions of one of the clauses (a) through (g) of Section 65.
• 20.5 Further, admitting a document as secondary evidence does not automatically prove its contents.
• The secondary evidence must be authenticated by foundational evidence showing that the alleged copy is, in fact, a true copy of the original. For instance, if a party wishes to introduce a photostat copy, they must explain the circumstances under which the copy was prepared and who possessed the original at the time the photograph was taken.
  • Ashok Dulichand v. Madahavlal Dube and Another (1975) 4 SCC 664; 
  • Chandra v. M. Thangamuthu, (2010) 9 SCC 712.
• 20.6 Mere admission of a document or making it an exhibit does not dispense with the requirement of proving it in accordance with the law. The court has an obligation to examine the probative value of the document and decide the question of admissibility before making an endorsement on the secondary evidence.
• If the foundational facts, such as the loss of the original or the explanation for its non-production, are not established, the court cannot legally allow the party to adduce secondary evidence.
  • Rakesh Mohindra v. Anita Beri, (2016) 16 SCC 483.
• 20.7 There is no requirement that an application must be filed to lead secondary evidence. While a party may choose to file such an application, secondary evidence cannot be ousted solely because no application was filed. It is sufficient if the party lays the necessary factual foundation for leading secondary evidence either in the pleadings or during the course of evidence
  • Dhanpat v. Sheo Ram 2020 (16) SCC 209

Condition for Secondary Evidence# Statutory Clause  #Type of Secondary Evidence Allowed Adversary Possession                            Section 65(a)      Any secondary evidence (after notice). Written Admission                                 Section 65(b)      The written admission itself. Loss or Destruction                                 Section 65(c)       Any secondary evidence. Immovable Original                                Section 65(d)      Any secondary evidence. Public Document                                      Section 65(e)      Only a certified copy. Law-Specified Document                     Section 65(f)       Only a certified copy. Voluminous Records                              Section 65(g)      Testimony of a skilled examiner.

• 21. Therefore, the introduction of secondary evidence is a two-step process, wherein,
  • first, the party must establish the legal right to lead secondary evidence, and
  • second, they must prove the contents of the documents through that evidence.
  • The twin requirements are conjunctive.
• 22. The High Court recorded a finding which is not challenged, that the PoA produced by the 1st Defendant is a notarised photocopy, and not the original document. The 1st Defendant is obligated to follow the procedure for adducing secondary evidence, and thereafter, claim presumption, if any, available to a document so adduced in evidence. It is axiomatic that secondary evidence is permissibleonly as an exception to the requirement of adducing primary evidence.
• 23. ….. In our considered view, neither Section 33 of the Registration Act nor Section 85 of the Evidence Act would come into application if the primary requirement of adducing secondary evidence is discharged by the party relying on the document. Section 85 of the Evidence Act falls under Chapter V, titled Documentary Evidence. In the absence of an original or at least a secondary evidence, it is impermissible to apply Section 85 of the Indian Evidence Act to conclude the execution and extent of authority given by the plaintiff to the 1st defendant. No order is brought to our notice through which secondary evidence is brought on record before the Trial Court. A photocopy of a document is no evidence unless the same is proved by following the procedure set out. Relying on Exh. B-2, the First Appellate Court acted on inadmissible evidence and accepted the existence of power to alienate. Exh. B-2/photocopy is no evidence, and the incorrect reliance on no evidence has been rightly corrected by the High Court through the impugned judgment. The High Court has considered the misreading of evidence by the Appellate Court and, by applying the correct principles of law, allowed the second appeal.”

End Notes

Legal Findings (Tharammel Peethambaran v. T. Ushakrishnan,  AIR 2026 SC 938) Summarised

• The FACTS have to be established by primary evidence.
• DOCUMENTS must be proved by primary evidence.
• Primary evidence is the rule, while secondary evidence is an exception.
• A factual foundation must be laid before admitting secondary evidence
• This involves two steps:
  • First, prove that the original document actually existed and was executed.
  • Secondly, establish valid reasons as to why the original cannot be furnished.
• Secondary evidence is inadmissible until the non-production of the original is accounted.
• Section 65 of the Evidence Act is exhaustive
• The introduction of secondary evidence is a two-step process.
  • First, the party must establish the legal right to lead secondary evidence, and
  • Second, they must prove the contents of the documents through that evidence.
  • The twin requirements are conjunctive.
• Admitting a secondary evidence does not prove its contents.
• The secondary evidence must be shown to be, in fact, a true copy.
• Section 63 provides an exhaustive list of what constitutes secondary evidence.
• Mere admission of a document as an exhibit does not dispense with proof.
• The court has an obligation to examine the probative value of the document and decide the question of admissibility before making the secondary evidence.
• If the foundational facts (loss of the original) are not established, the court cannot legally allow the party to adduce secondary evidence.
• There is no requirement that an application must be filed to lead secondary evidence.

R.V.E. Venkatchalla Gounder v. Arulmighu Viswesaraswamy

In R.V.E. Venkatchalla Gounder v. Arulmighu Viswesaraswamy and V.P. Temple, (2003) 8 SCC 752 (R.C. Lahoti, Ashok Bhan, JJ.), held as under:

• “Ordinarily an objection to the admissibility of evidence should be taken when it is tendered and not subsequently.
• The objections as to admissibility of documents in evidence may be classified into two classes:-
  • .(i) an objection that the document which is sought to be proved is itself inadmissible in evidence; and
  • (ii) where the objection does not dispute the admissibility of the document in evidence but is directed towards the mode of proof alleging the same to be irregular or insufficient.
• In the first case, merely because a document has been marked as ‘an exhibit’, an objection as to its admissibility is not excluded and is available to be raised even at a later stage or even in appeal or revision.
• In the latter case, the objection should be taken before the evidence is tendered and once the document has been admitted in evidence and marked as an exhibit, the objection that it should not have been admitted in evidence or that the mode adopted for proving the document is irregular cannot be allowed to be raised at any stage subsequent to the marking of the document as an exhibit. The later proposition is a rule of fair play. The crucial test is whether an objection, if taken at the appropriate point of time, would have enabled the party tendering the evidence to cure the defect and resort to such mode of proof as would be regular. The omission to object becomes fatal because by his failure the party entitled to object allows the party tendering the evidence to act on an assumption that the opposite party is not serious about the mode of proof. On the other hand, a prompt objection does not prejudice the party tendering the evidence, for two reasons: firstly, it enables the Court to apply its mind and pronounce its decision on the question of admissibility then and there; and secondly, in the event of finding of the Court on the mode of proof sought to be adopted going against the party tendering the evidence, the opportunity of seeking indulgence of the Court for permitting a regular mode or method of proof and thereby removing the objection raised by the opposite party, is available to the party leading the evidence. Such practice and procedure is fair to both the parties. Out of the two types of objections, referred to hereinabove, in the later case, failure to raise a prompt and timely objection amounts to waiver of the necessity for insisting on formal proof of a document, the document itself which is sought to be proved being admissible in evidence.
• In the first case, acquiescence would be no bar to raising the objection in superior Court.”
• This view is also found in
  • Neeraj Dutta v. State (Govt. of Delhi) [2023] 4 SCC 731: five-Judge Bench
  • Smt. Dayamathi Bai v. K.M. Shaffi, AIR 2004 SC 4082.
  • Iqbal Basith v. N Subbalakshmi, (2021) 2 SCC 718;  
  •  PC Thomas v. PM Ismail, AIR 2010 SC 905; 2009-10 SCC 239
  • Oriental Insurance Co  v. Premlata:   2007-8 SCC 575
  • Thimmappa Rai v. Ramanna Rai,(2007) 14 SCC 63
  • Narbada Devi v. Birendra Kumar: 2003-8 SCC 745. 

Chapter V of the Evidence Act deals with Documentary Evidence

Sections 61 to 65 deal generally with Preliminary Aspects as to Admissibility. It can be summarised as under:

• Section 61. The contents of documents may be proved either by primary or by secondary evidence.
• Section 62. Primary evidence means the document itself
• Section 63. Secondary evidence. Secondary evidence means and includes–
  • .(1) certified copies
  • (2) copies made by mechanical processes
  • (3) copies compared with the original  
  • (4) counterparts of documents
  • (5) oral accounts
• Section 64 Documents must be proved by primary evidence.
• Section 65. Cases in which secondary evidence may be given.
  • .(a) when the original is in the possession of the person against whom…
  • (b) when the existence, condition or contents admitted in writing
  • (c) when the original has been destroyed or lost,
  • (d) when the original is not to be easily movable  
  • (e) when the original is a public document
  • (f) when a certified copy is permitted to be given in evidence
  • (g) when the originals consist of numerous accounts …

Proof on Documents- General Provisions

1. Section 91 expressly bars oral evidence to prove the terms of a contract if they are reduced to writing.

2. Sec. 22 and 144 of the Evidence Act postulate that the oral assertions as to contents of documents are not.

Modes of Proof of Documents

Modes of Proof of Documents (as to, both, ‘formal proof’ and ‘truth of the contents’) include the following:

• Admission  (Sec. 17, 21, 58, 67, 70).
• Evidence of a person who has seen – ocular evidence (Sec. 59).
• An attesting witness (Sec. 59).
• Opinion of one who is acquainted with the writing (Sec. 47).
• Admission  in judicial proceedings (Sec. 32, 33).
• Handwriting expert-opinion evidence/scientific evidence (Sec.45).
• Evidence of one in the ordinary course of his business or official duty  (Sec. 32, 34, 35 or 114).
• Invoking (specific) presumptions under Sec. 79 to 90A.
• Presumptions (general) under Sec. 114.
• Circumstantial evidence: on probability or inferences (Sec. 114).
• Court-comparison (Sec. 73).
• Facts judicially noticeable (Sec. 56 and 57).
• A fact of common-knowledge. (It does not require proof. See: Union Of India Vs. Virendra Bharti: 2011-2 ACC 886, 2010  ACJ 2353; Rakhal Chakraborty Vs. Sanjib Kumar Roy: 1998-1 GauLR 253, 1997-2 GauLT 705)
• Internal evidence afforded by the contents of the document; a link in a chain of correspondence; recipient of the document. (Mobarik Ali Ahmed Vs. State of Bombay, AIR 1957 SC 857)

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• Our Courts  Apply Different ‘STANDADARDS of  Proof’
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• What is Binding Judicial Precedent – In a  Nutshell
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• Declaration and Injunction
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PROPERTY LAW

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• ‘Nemo Dat Quod Non  Habet’
• Section 27,  Limitation Act Gives-Rise to a Substantive Right so as to Seek Declaration and  Recovery
• Sale Deeds Without Consideration –  Void
• Tenancy at Sufferance in Indian  Law
• “Due Process of Law” in Civil  Suits
• Revenue  Settlement Registers of Travancore in 1910, Basic Record of Land  matters
• Govt. of AP v. Thummala Krishna Rao, AIR 1982 SC 1081, 1982 (2) SCC 134, Misread by High  Courts
• Can the Forest Tribunal Make a Finding on  Title?

Recovery of Possession:  

• Suit on Possessory Remedy, Other side Admits Possession; Should the Will be  Proved?
• Recovery of Possession Based on Title and on Earlier  Possession
• Recovery of Possession (Based on Title) and Eviction (of  Tenants)
• Declaration of Title & Recovery of Possession: Art. 65, not Art. 58, Limitation Act  Governs
• Title and Ownership and Possessory Title in Indian  Law
• Does  Registration of a Document give  Notice to the Whole  World?
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• POSSESSION is a Substantive Right in Indian  Law
• 22nd Law Commission   Report on ‘Law on Adverse Possession’
• Adverse Possession Against Government
• Government of Kerala v. Joseph – Law on Adverse Possession Against Government
• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• How to Plead Adverse Possession?  Adverse Possession: An Evolving Concept
• Adverse Possession: Burden to Plead Sabotaged
• Does ‘Abandonment’ Give rise to a Recognised Right in Indian  Law?
• When ‘Possession Follows Title’; ‘Title Follows Possession’?
• Ultimate Ownership of All Property Vests in State; It is an Incident of  Sovereignty.
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• Can Transfer of Registry or Mutation and Payment of Tax be Denied, pointing out Revenue Recovery, Attachment or Bank  Loan?
• Preemption  is a Very Weak Right; For, Property Right is a Constitutional & Human  Right
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent Interests
• Family Settlement or Family Arrangement in  Law
• INJUNCTION is a ‘Possessory Remedy’ in Indian  Law
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian  Law
• Kesar Bai v. Genda Lal – Does Something Remain  Untold?
• Grant in Law
• Termination of Tenancy (& Grant) by Forfeiture (for Claiming  Title)
• SUIT on TITLE: Landlord can Recover Property on GENERAL TITLE (though Tenancy Not Proved) if Defendant Falsely Claimed Independent  Title
• Even the Rightful Owner is NOT entitled to Eject a Trespasser, by  Force
• Ryotwari  System in  Madras

Survey, Revenue Records, Mutation

• Title is Not Proved by Revenue Entries; Title Claims are Investigated by Civil Courts, Not by High  Courts
• Revenue  Settlement Registers of Travancore in 1910, Basic Record of Land  matters
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• Can Transfer of Registry or Mutation and Payment of Tax be Denied, pointing out Revenue Recovery, Attachment or Bank  Loan?
• Survey Authorities Do Not Decide  TITLE
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree
• Will Boundaries of Properties (Always) Preferred Over Survey Number, Extent, Side Measurements,  etc.?
• Survey under Survey Act – Raises a Presumption on  Boundary; though Not Confer  Title

Adverse Possession

• Dispossession and Knowledge: Essential Requirements of Adverse  Possession
• Adverse Possession: Legal Principles and Classic Cases in the UK and the  US
• Adverse Possession: Should Unobstructed Possession Subsist for 12 Years Immediately Preceding the  Suit?
• Illegal, Mistaken or Fraudulent Registration of Deed, and Subsequent Mutation: No Adverse  Possession
• Adverse Possession: A Concise  Overview
• What is Adverse Possession  in Indian  Law?
• Neelam Gupta v. Rajendra Kumar Gupta (AIR 2024 SC 5374) – Supreme Court Denied the Tenant’s Claim of Adverse  Possession
• Adverse Possession:  How to Plead Adverse Possession?  Adverse Possession: An Evolving  Concept
• Adverse Possession Against Government
• Govt. of AP v. Thummala Krishna Rao, AIR 1982 SC 1081, 1982 (2) SCC 134, Misread by High  Courts
• Adverse Possession: Burden to Plead Sabotaged
• Does ‘Abandonment’ Give rise to a Recognised Right in Indian  Law?
• When ‘Possession Follows Title’; ‘Title Follows Possession’?
• Government of Kerala v. Joseph – Law on Adverse Possession Against Government
• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian  Law
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• Ouster and Dispossession in Adverse  Possession
• Declaration of Title & Recovery of Possession: Art. 65, not Art. 58, Limitation Act  Governs
• Mallavva v. Kalsammanavara Kalamma, 2024 INSC 1021, Composite Suit (Cancellation & Recovery) – Substantive Relief Determines Limitation   
• The Laws of ‘Doctrine of Election’ and ‘Doctrine of  Waiver’

Land Laws/  Transfer of Property Act

• Bona Fide Purchaser for Value Deserves Stronger Equity than a Prior Contract  Holder
• Travancore Royal Pattom Proclamations of 1040  (1865 AD) and 1061 (1886 AD), And 1922 Devaswom  Proclamation
• Revenue  Settlement Registers of Travancore in 1910, Basic Record of Land  matters
• Tenancy at Sufferance in Indian  Law
• Freehold Property in  Law
• What is Patta or  Pattayam?
• Does ‘Pandaravaka Pattom’ in Kerala Denote  Full-Ownership?
• Previous Owner is Not a Necessary Party in a Recovery  Suit
• Recovery of Possession Based on Title and on Earlier  Possession
• Recovery of Possession (Based on Title) and Eviction (of  Tenants)
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent  Interests
• Vested Remainder and Contingent Remainder
• Vested interest and Contingent  Interest
• Rule Against Perpetuity –  Simplified
• Ultimate Ownership of All Property Vests in State; It is an Incident of  Sovereignty.
• Land Acquired Cannot be Returned – Even if it is Not Used for the Purpose  Acquired
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• Can Transfer of Registry or Mutation and Payment of Tax be Denied, pointing out Revenue Recovery, Attachment or Bank  Loan?
• Harrisons Malayalam Ltd. v. State of Kerala (2026:KER:19290): Transfer of Registry can be Claimed only on Proper Application, with Supporting  Documents
• FERA, 1973 And Transfer of Immovable Property by a  Foreigner
• Marumakkathayam – A System of Law and Way of Life Prevailed in  Kerala
• Land Tenures, and History of Land Derivation, in  Kerala
• Glen Leven Estate v. State of Kerala: Not Correctly  Decided?
• Sale Deeds Without Consideration –  Void
• If a Document is Per Se Illegal, or Void Ab Initio, it Need Not be Set  Aside
• Law on SUCCESSION CERTIFICATE and LEGAL HEIRSHIP  CERTIFICATE
• Sec. 7 Easements Act – Natural Advantages Arising from the Situation of Land & Natural Flow of  Water
• Grant in Law
• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• Title of the Government Property in India: Government is the Ultimate Owner of Every Property; Hence, Government Need Not Prove  Title.
• Survey under Survey Act – Raises a Presumption on  Boundary; though Not Confer  Title
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree
• In a Suit for Fixation of Boundary, Property of the Defendant Need Not be  Scheduled
• Property Rights Cannot be Taken Away on Technical Grounds of  Delay:  Rama S/o Gunda Malkapure v. The State of Maharashtra

Land Reform Laws

• Ten Square Miles Concession and Kanan Devan Hills Concession – State Grants of Travancore  Governments
• Plantation-Tenants Not Approached The Land Tribunal are Ineligible for Plantation-Exemption-Orders from the Land  Board
• Acquisition of (Exempted) Plantation Property: Should the Govt. Pay Full Land Value to Land  Owners?
• Relevant provisions of  Kerala Land Reforms Act  in a  Nutshell
• Land Tenures, and History of Land Derivation, in  Kerala
• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• ‘Janmam’ Right is FREEHOLD Interest and ‘Estate’ in Constitution – By Royal Proclamation of 1899, The Travancore Sircar became Janmi of Poonjar Raja’s  Land
• Government is the OWNER of (Leasehold) Plantation Lands in  Kerala.
• Title of the Government Property in India: Government is the Ultimate Owner of Every Property; Hence, Government Need Not Prove  Title.
• Glen Leven Estate v. State of Kerala: Not Correctly  Decided?
• Law on Acquisition of Private Plantation Land in  Kerala
• Plantation Exemption in Kerala Land Reforms Act–in a  Nutshell
• Kerala Land Reforms Act – Provisions on Plantation-Tenancy and  Land-Tenancy
• Grant in Law
• Balanoor Plantations & Industries Ltd. v. State of Kerala – Based on the Principle: LT to fix Tenancy’; TLB to Fix Plantation Exemption.   
• 1910 Settlement Register of Travancore – Basic Record of Land  Matters
• Do the Plantation-Tenants have the Right to Seek ‘Assignment’ of the Entire Plantation-Tenancy-Land (under Purchase  Certificates)?

Power of attorney

• M.S. Ananthamurthy v. J. Manjula: Mere Word  ‘Irrevocable’  Does Not Make a POWER OF ATTORNEY  Irrevocable
• Can a Power of Attorney file a Civil Suit? Is there any bar by virtue of Manisha Mahendra Gala v. Shalini Bhagwan Avatramani, 2024-6 SCC  130?
• No Adjudication If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently  Stamped
• Notary Attested Power-of-Attorney Sufficient for Registration
• Notary-Attested Documents and Presumptions
• Permission when a Power of Attorney Holder Files  Suit
• If Power of Attorney himself Executes the Document, S. 33 Registration Act will NOT be  attracted
• Should a Power of Attorney for Sale must have been Registered –
• Is Registered Power of Attorney Necessary for Registration of a Deed?  No.

Evidence Act – General

• Tharammel Peethambaran vs T. Ushakrishnan, Pankaj Mithal, S.V.N. Bhatti, JJ.,  AIR 2026 SC 938: A Classic Decision on Secondary Evidence
• Newspaper Reports are ‘Hearsay Secondary  Evidence’
• Major Changes in the Evidence Act by Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Sec. 27 Recovery/Discovery in Evidence Act and Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Evidence in Court – General  Principles
• Expert Evidence and Appreciation of  Evidence
• Handwriting Expert Evidence: Relevant, But Merely an  Opinion
• How to Contradict a Witness under Sec. 145, Evidence  Act
• Can a Witness be Confronted with a Photograph During Cross-Examination Without its Prior  Production (Anu C.R. v. State of Kerala)
• Withholding Evidence and Adverse Inference
• Best Evidence Rule in Indian  Law
• What is Collateral  Purpose?
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting  Onus
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court and ‘Preponderance of Probabilities’ & ‘Probative Value of  Evidence
• Effect of Not Cross-Examining a Witness & Effect of Not Facing Complete Cross Examination by the  Witness
• Suggestions & Admissions by Counsel, in Cross Examination to  Witnesses
• Proof of Documents  –  Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Public Documents: Proof and  Presumption
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered  Will?
• Significance of Scientific Evidence in Judicial  Process
• Polygraphy, Narco Analysis and Brain Mapping Tests
• What is Section 27 Evidence Act – Recovery or  Discovery?
• How ‘Discovery’ under Section 27, Evidence Act,  Proved?
• Pictorial Testimony Theory and Silent Witnesses  Theory
• Sec. 35 Evidence Act: Presumption of Truth and Probative  Value
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act

Sec. 65B

• Grammatically and Contextually, the Non Obstante Clause in Section 63(1) BSA is Confined to the Deeming Fiction
• Is a Section 63(4) Certificate an Essential Prerequisite for the Admission of a Photograph in  Evidence?
• Admissibility of Electronic Evidence: Does Section 61 of the BSA Permit Oral Proof (Overriding Arjun  Panditrao)
• Law on Electronic Evidence in India: A Comparative Analysis with Other  Jurisdictions
• Hash Value Certificate – Mandatory or  Directory
• Sakshya Adhiniyam (Literally) Mandates Hashing the Original. But the Established Jurisprudence Requires Hashing the  Copy.
• Sec. 27 Recovery/Discovery in Evidence Act and Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Electronic Evidence under   S. 61, 62, 63 of the  BSA
• Sec. 65B (Electronic Records) and Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Sec. 65B, Evidence Act: Arjun Paditrao  Criticised.
• Sec. 65B Evidence Act  Simplified
• ‘STATEMENTS’ alone can be proved by ‘CERTIFICATE’ u/s. 65B
• Sec. 65B,   Evidence Act: Certificate forms
• “Nothing  In This Adhiniyam Shall Apply To Deny The Admissibility” – New Provision (Sec. 61, BSA) to ensure that Sec. 65B (Sec. 63, BSA) is an enabling&nbs p;provision
• Certificate is Required Only for ‘Computer Output’; Not for ‘Electronic Records’: Arjun Panditrao  Explored.
• How to Prove ‘Whatsap Messages’, ‘Facebook’ and ‘Website’ in  Courts?

Admission, Relevancy and Proof

• ‘Admission’ in Indian  Law
• Relevancy, Admissibility and Proof of  Documents
• Handwriting Expert Evidence: Relevant, But Merely an  Opinion
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on  ‘Admission’
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• Judicial Admissions in Pleadings:  Admissible  Proprio Vigore  Against the  Maker
• Document Exhibited in the Writ Petition as ‘True Copy’ – Can it be Used in a Civil Suit as ‘Admission’?
• Modes of Proof of  Documents
• Proof of  Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Should Objection to Marking Documents be Raised When it is Admitted; Is it Enough to Challenge them in Cross-Examination?
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting  Onus
• Burden on Plaintiff to Prove Title; Weakness of Defence Will Not Entitle a  Decree
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court and ‘Preponderance of Probabilities’ & ‘Probative Value of  Evidence
• Production, Admissibility & Proof Of  Documents
• Proof of Documents – Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Can Documents be Marked In Cross Examination, If Witness Admits  Them?
• Substantive  Documents, and Documents used for Refreshing Memory and Contradicting  
• Oral Evidence on Contents of Document, Irrelevant
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Relevancy of Civil Case Judgments in Criminal  Cases
• Prem Raj v.   Poonamma Menon (SC), April 2, 2024 – An Odd Decision on ‘Civil Court Judgment does not Bind Criminal  Court’

Law on Documents

• Public Documents: Proof and  Presumption
• Public Documents Admissible Without Formal  Proof
• Admitted Documents – Can the Court Refrain from Marking, for no Formal  Proof?
• Does  Registration of a Document give  Notice to the Whole  World?
• Is Registration of a Deed, Notice to  Government?
• Production, Admissibility & Proof Of  Documents
• Relevancy, Admissibility and Proof of  Documents
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on  ‘Admission’
• Effect of Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Stand Proved?
• Time Limit for Registration of  Documents
• Registration of Documents Executed out of  India
• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered  Will?
• Are RTI Documents Admissible in Evidence as ‘Public  Documents’?
• Oral Evidence on Contents of Document, Irrelevant
• Proof of  Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Notary-Attested Documents and Presumptions
• Documents Produced With the Plaint are Treated As ‘Part of The  Plaint’
• What is Collateral  Purpose?
• No Application Needed for  Filing or Admitting  Copy
• Presumptions on Documents  and Truth of  Contents
• Presumptions on  Registered Documents  & Truth of Contents
• Notice to Produce Documents in Civil  Cases
• Production of Documents: Order 11, Rule 14 & Rule  12
• Modes of Proof of  Documents
• Secondary Evidence  of Documents & Objections to Admissibility  – How &  When?
• Tharammel Peethambaran vs T. Ushakrishnan, Pankaj Mithal, S.V.N. Bhatti, JJ.,  AIR 2026 SC 938: A Classic Decision on Secondary Evidence
• Should Objection to Marking Documents be Raised When it is Admitted; Is it Enough to Challenge them in Cross-Examination?
• 30 Years Old Documents and Presumption of Truth of Contents,  under  Sec. 90 Evidence  Act
• Unstamped & Unregistered Documents and Collateral  Purpose
• Adjudication as to Proper Stamp under Stamp  Act
• Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Cancellation of Sale Deeds and Settlement Deeds & Powers of Sub-Registrar in cancelling  Deeds
• Cancellation, Avoidance or Declaration of a Void or Voidable  Deed
• If a Document is Per Se Illegal, or Void Ab Initio, it Need Not be Set  Aside
• Can the True Owner Seek Cancellation  of a Deed, Executed by a Stranger to the  Property
• Substantive  Documents, and Documents used for Refreshing Memory and Contradicting  
• How to Contradict a Witness under Sec. 145, Evidence  Act
• Can a Witness be Confronted with a Photograph During Cross-Examination Without its Prior  Production?
• Saji Koduvath, Advocate, Kottay
• Visual and Audio Evidence (Including  Photographs, Cassettes, Tape-recordings, Films, CCTV Footage, CDs, e-mails, Chips, Hard-discs,  Pen-drives)
• Photograph Evidence, Its Admissibility and Photo-Identification in Court  Cases
• Pictorial Testimony Theory and Silent Witnesses  Theory
• No Adjudication Needed If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently  Stamped
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific  Performance
• Impounding of Documents – When Produced; Cannot Wait Till it is  Exhibited
• Sec. 35 Evidence Act: Presumption of Truth and Probative  Value
• How to Prove Resolutions of a Company; Are Minutes  Necessary?

Documents – Proof and Presumption

• Contents of a Document are to be Proved in Court by Producing Original or Secondary  Evidence
• Handwriting Expert Evidence: Relevant, But Merely an  Opinion
• Public Documents: Proof and  Presumption
• Is a Section 63(4) Certificate an Essential Prerequisite for the Admission of a Photograph in  Evidence?
• Can the Court Refuse to Mark a (Relevant and Admissible) Document, for (i) there is No Formal Proof or (ii) it is a  Photocopy?
• Photograph Evidence, Its Admissibility and Photo-Identification in Court  Cases
• Marking of Photocopy and Law on Marking Documents on Admission (Without Formal  Proof)
• Proof of Documents  –  Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Modes of Proof of  Documents
• ‘Admission’ in Indian  Law
• Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Admitted Documents – Can the Court Refrain from Marking, for no Formal  Proof?
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on  ‘Admission’
• Effect of Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Stand Proved?
• Proof of  Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Should Objection to Marking Documents be Raised When it is Admitted; Is it Enough to Challenge them in Cross-Examination?
• Presumptions on Documents  and Truth of  Contents
• Presumptions on  Registered Documents  & Truth of Contents
• Secondary Evidence  of Documents & Objections to Admissibility  – How &  When?
• 30 Years Old Documents and Presumption of Truth of Contents,  under  Sec. 90 Evidence  Act

Interpretation

• Interpretation of Documents – Literal Rule, Mischief Rule and Golden  Rule
• Golden  Rule of Interpretation is Misapplied in Several Cases in  India
• Interpretation of  Statutes  – Literal Rule, Mischief Rule and Golden  Rule
• Golden  Rule of Interpretation is Not the Application of Plain Meaning of the  Words
• Interpretation of Wills
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court and ‘Preponderance of Probabilities’ & ‘Probative Value of  Evidence‘
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree

Contract Act

• Jaspal Singh v. Ashwani Kumar: Earnest Money Refund Clause Does Not Bar Specific Performance unless it is a Substitute for Sale
• What is the Period of Limitation for a Suit on a Promissory  Note?
• Can Filing a Suit Amount to Notice of Termination of  Contract
• Godrej Projects Development Limited v. Anil Karlekar, 2025 INSC 143 – Supreme Court Missed to State  Something
• ‘Sound-mind’ and ‘Unsound-Mind’ in Indian Civil  Laws
• Forfeiture of Earnest Money and Reasonable  Compensation
• Who has to fix Damages in Tort and  Contract?
• UNDUE INFLUENCE and PLEADINGS thereof in Indian  Law
• All Illegal Agreements are Void; but All Void Agreements are Not  Illegal
• If a Document is Per Se Illegal, or Void Ab Initio, it Need Not be Set  Aside
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific  Performance
• Cheating and Breach of Contract: Distinction – Fraudulent Intention at the time of Promise.

Specific Relief Act

• Jaspal Singh v. Ashwani Kumar: Earnest Money Refund Clause Does Not Bar Specific Performance unless it is a Substitute for Sale
• Venkatesha v. KM Venkatamuniyappa: A Rectification Deed Cannot, in the Guise of Correcting an Error, Substitute the Very Subject Matter

Law on Damages

• Law on Damages
• Who has to fix Damages in Tort and  Contract?
• Law on Damages in Defamation  Cases
• Pleadings in Defamation  Suits
• Godrej Projects Development Limited v. Anil Karlekar, 2025 INSC 143 – Supreme Court Missed to State  Something

Easement

• Easement Simplified
• What is Easement? Does Right of Easement  Allow to ‘Enjoy’ Servient Land After Making Improvements Therein  ?
• “Implied Grant” in Law of  Easements
• Implied Grant: A Valid Mode of Creation of Easement under Indian  Law
• “Title Thereto” in the Definition of ‘Prescriptive Easement’ in Sec. 15 of the Indian Easements Act,  1882
• Prescriptive Rights – Inchoate until the Title thereof is Upheld by a Competent  Court
• Will Easement of Necessity Ripen into a Prescriptive  Easement?
• What is “period ending within two years next before the institution of the suit” in Easement by  Prescription?
• Is the Basis of Every Easement, Theoretically, a  Grant
• Extent of Easement (Width of Way) in Easement of Necessity,  Quasi Easement and Implied  Grant
• Easement of Necessity and Prescriptive Easement are Mutually Destructive; But, Easement of Necessity and Implied Grant Can be Claimed  Alternatively
• Can  Easement of Necessity and  of Grant be Claimed in a Suit (Alternatively)?
• Can an Easement-Way be Altered by the Owner of the  Land?
• Village Pathways and Right to Bury are not  Easements.
• Custom & Customary Easements in Indian  Law
• ‘Additional Burden Loses Lateral Support’ – Incorrect  Proposition
• Grant in Law
• Travancore Grant Deeds, in  Law
• Right of Private Way Beyond (Other Than)  Easement
• Easement – Should Date of Beginning of 20 Years be&nbs p;pleaded?
• What is Easement, in law? Right of Easement  Simplified
• One Year Interruption or Obstruction will not affect Prescriptive  Easement
• Should the Plaintiff Schedule Servient Heritage in a Suit Claiming Perspective  Easement?
• Necessary Parties in Suits on  Easement
• Easement by Prescription – Grant or ‘Acquiring’ by “Hostile  Act”
• Sec. 7 Easements Act – Natural Advantages Arising from the Situation of Land & Natural Flow of  Water
• Licence and Irrevocable Licence: Section 60 Easements Act Applies only to ‘Bare Licences’ and Not to ‘Contractual  Licences’

Stamp Act & Registration

• Sub-Registrar has no Authority to Ascertain whether the Vendor has  Title
• Title Enquiry by the Sub Registrar is  Illegal
• Cancellation of Sale Deeds and Settlement Deeds & Powers of Sub-Registrar in Cancelling  Deeds
• Time-Limit For Adjudication of Unstamped Documents, before  Collector
• Time Limit for Registration of  Documents
• Presumptions on Registered Documents & Truth of Contents
• Registration of Documents Executed out of  India
• Does  Registration of a Document give  Notice to the Whole  World?
• Is Registration of a Deed, Notice to  Government?
• LAW ON INSUFFICIENTLY STAMPED  DOCUMENTS  
• Adjudication as to Proper Stamp under Stamp  Act
• Unstamped & Unregistered Documents and Collateral  Purpose
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific  Performance
• Impounding of Documents, When Produced; Cannot Wait Till it is  Exhibited
• No Adjudication Needed If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently  Stamped
• Notary Attested Power-of-Attorney Sufficient for Registration
• What is Torrens  System

Natural Justice/Disciplinary Action

• Expulsion of Members & Removal of  Office-Bearers
• Arjun Dass v. The State of AP: Natural Justice Violation in Removal of  Mathadhipati
• Natural Justice – Not an Unruly Horse
• Krishnadatt Awasthy v. State of M.P., 29 January, 2025 – Law on Natural Justice  Revisited

• Court’s Jurisdiction to Interfere in the Internal Affairs of a Club or  Society
• Sec. 91 CPC and Suits Against Wrongful  Acts
• Does Alternate Remedy Bar Civil Suits and Writ  Petitions?
• Civil Rights & Jurisdiction of Civil Courts under Sec. 9  CPC
• Court Interference in Election Process of Societies and  Clubs

Divorce/Marriage

• Presumption of Valid Marriage – If lived together for Long  Spell
• Validity of Foreign Divorce Decrees in  India
• Is  ‘Irretrievable Brake-down of Marriage’, a  Valid Ground for Divorce in  India?
• Foreign Divorce Judgment against Christians having Indian  Domicile

Negotiable Instruments Act

• Does a Cheque-Case under NI Act Lie Against a Partnership/ Trust/  Society?
• Partnership Firm Need Not be an Accused in S. 138 NI Act  Complaint
• Mansi Finance (Chennai) Ltd. v. M. Lalitha (2026 INSC 547, May 26, 2026.): Cheque Bounce (NI Act) Cases: No Deemed Liability to the Directors of a Company or Society; The Complaint Must Disclose Factual  Basis
• Presumptions Regarding Consideration in Cheque Cases under the NI  Act
• An Inchoate Cheque (Signed Blank Cheque or Incomplete Cheque) Cannot be Enforced Through a Court of Law Invoking Presumptions under the NI  Act
• Does Cheque-Case under Sec. 138, NI Act Lie Against a  Trust?
• Sec. 138 NI Act (Cheque) Cases: Presumption of Consideration u/s. 118
• Even if ‘Signed-Blank-Cheque’, No Burden on Complainant to Prove Consideration; Rebuttal can be by a Probable  Defence
• “Otherwise Through an Account” in Section 142, NI  Act
• Where to file Cheque Bounce Cases (Jurisdiction of Court – to file NI Act  Complaint)?
• Cheque Dishonour Case against a Company, Firm or  Society
• What is ‘Cognizance’ in  Law
• What is COGNIZANCE and Application of Mind by a  Magistrate?

Criminal

• Pradeep Nirankarnath Sharma v. The State of Gujarat: The police have no discretion to conduct a preliminary inquiry before registering an FIR in cognizable  offences
• Sadiq B. Hanchinmani v. The State of Karnataka: Supreme Court held – Commission of Cognizable Offence, On the Face of it, Merit Police Investigation
• ‘Prima Facie Case’ in Criminal  Cases

Arbitration

• Seesaw of Supreme Court in NN Global Mercantile v. Indo Unique  Flame
• N.N. Global Mercantile (P) Ltd. v. Indo Unique Flame Ltd. and Ground Realities of Indian  Situation
• What are Non-Arbitrable Disputes? When a Dispute is Not Referred to Arbitration in spite of Arbitration  Clause
• Termination or Nullity of Contract Will Not Cease Efficacy of the Arbitration  Clause
• No Valid Arbitration Agreement ‘Exists’ – Can Arbitration Clause be  Invoked?

Will

• Interpretation of Wills
• Interpretation of Inconsistent Clauses in a  Will
• Executors of Will – Duties & their  Removal
• A Witness to Hindu-Will will not Lose  Benefit
• Will – Probate and Letters of  Administration
• How to Write a Will? Requirements of a Valid  Will
• Witnesses to the Will Need Not See the Execution of the  Will
• How to Prove a Will, in Court? Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered  Will?
• When Execution of a Will is ‘Admitted’ by the Opposite Side, Should it be ‘Proved’?
• 30 Years Old Documents- No ‘Absolute’ Presumption of Truth of Contents, under Sec. 90 Evidence  Act
• Suit on Possessory Remedy, Other side Admits Possession; Should the Will be  Proved?
• Presumption on Registered Documents & Truth of  Contents
• Presumptions on Documents and Truth of  Contents
• Parvathi Nairthi v. Laxmi Nairthy: Deprivation of Natural Heirs Not Amount to Suspicious Circumstance; A Will is not Required to be Proved with Mathematical Accuracy; Unregistered Will is  Valid.

Book No.  2:  A Handbook on Constitutional Issues

• Judicial & Legislative Activism in India: Principles and  Instances
• Can Legislature Overpower Court Decisions by an  Enactment?
• Separation of Powers: Who Wins the Race – Legislature or Judiciary?
• Kesavananda Bharati Case: Never Ending  Controversy
• Mullaperiyar Dam: Disputes and Adjudication of Legal  Issues
• Article 370: Is There Little Chance for Supreme Court  Interference
• Maratha Backward Community Reservation: SC Fixed Limit at  50%.
• Polygraphy, Narco Analysis and Brain Mapping Tests
• CAA Challenge: Divergent  Views
• FERA, 1973 And Transfer of Immovable Property by a  Foreigner
• Doctrine of ‘Right to be Forgotten’ in Indian  Law
• Doctrines on Ultra Vires and Removing the BASIS of the Judgment, in ED Director’s Tenure Extension Case (Dr. Jaya Thakur v. Union of  India)
• Dr. Jaya Thakur v. Union of India – Mandamus (Given in a Case) Cannot be Annulled by Changing the  Law
• Art. 370 – Turns the Constitution on Its  Head

Religious issues

• Sabarimala Review: Supreme Court to Decide the Contours of Constitutional  Morality
• Secularism and Art. 25 & 26 of the Indian  Constitution
• Secularism & Freedom of Religion in Indian  Panorama
• ‘Ban on Muslim Women to Enter Mosques, Unconstitutional’
• No Reservation to Muslim and Christian SCs/STs (Dalits) Why?
• Parsi Women – Excommunication for Marrying Outside
• Knanaya Endogamy & Constitution of  India
• Sabarimala Review Petitions & Reference to 9-Judge  Bench
• SABARIMALA REVIEW and Conflict in Findings between Shirur Mutt Case & Durgah Committee  Case
• Ayodhya  Disputes:  M. Siddiq case –Pragmatic Verdict

Book No.  3:  Common Law of CLUBS and SOCIETIES in India

• General
  • General  Features
  • Bye Laws  Fundamental
  • Effect of Registration of Societies and Incorporation of  Clubs
  • Societies and Branches
• Property & Trust
  • Vesting of Property in Societies and  Clubs
  • Incidents of Trust in Clubs and  Societies
  • Can a Trust be Registered as a  Society? Can a Society be Converted into a  Trust?
  • Juristic Personality of Societies and  Clubs
  • Legal Personality of Trustees and Office Bearers
• Suits
  • Suits and Criminal Complaints By and Against a Company
  • Suits By or Against Societies, Clubs
  • Court’s Jurisdiction to Interfere in the Internal Affairs
  • How to Sue Societies, Clubs and  Companies
  • Members of a Charitable Society which Runs a College are Tractable to Prevention of Corruption  Act
  • Does a Cheque-Case under NI Act Lie Against a Partnership/ Trust/  Society?
  • Lifting Corporate Veil of Companies and Subsidiary  Companies
• Amendment and Dissolution
  • Amendment of Bye laws of Societies and  Clubs
  • Dissolution of Societies and  Clubs
• Rights and Management
  • Rights & Liabilities of Members of Clubs and  Societies
  • Individual Membership Rights in Societies & Clubs
  • Management – Powers of General Body and Governing  Body
  • Expulsion of Members & Removal of  Office-Bearers
  • Law on Meetings: An  Overview
  • How to Prove Resolutions of a Company; Are Minutes  Necessary?
• Election
  • Election & Challenge in Societies and  Clubs
  • Court Interference in Election  Process
• State Actions
  • State-Interference in Affairs of Societies &  Clubs

Book No.  4:  Common Law of TRUSTS in India

• General Principles
  • Classification of Trusts
  • What is Trust in Law?
  • Public & Private Trusts in  India.
  • Trust is ‘An Obligation’; Not a Legal Entity
  • Indian Law Does Not Accept Salmond, as to Dual  Ownership
  • Trusts and Trust  Deeds
  • Lucknow Nagar Nigam v. Kohli Brothers Colour Lab, 2024-2 SCR  847
• Dedication and Vesting
  • Dedication of Property in Public  Trusts
  • Vesting of Property in  Trusts
  • Incidents of Trust in Clubs and  Societies
  • Can a Trust be Registered as a  Society? Can a Society be Converted into a  Trust?
  • What is Munambam Wakf Land Issue? If there is No Permanent Dedication, there will be No  Wakf.
• Trustees and Management
  • Trustees and Administration of Public Trusts
  • Alienation of Public Trust  Property
  • Extinction, Discharge, Revocation, etc. of Public  Trusts
  • Charitable and Religious Trusts Act, 1920: Provisions as regards opinion, advice or direction of the  Court.
• Breach of Trust
  • Breach of Trust and Removal of Trustees
• Suits by or against Trusts
  • Suits By or Against Trusts and Trustees
  • A Trust Cannot Be Made as a Party  to a  Litigation
  • Remedies Under Sec. 92  CPC
  • Operation Asha   v. Shelly Batra, a Landmark Judgment on Sec. 92, CPC – Critical  Appreciation
  • Does a Cheque-Case under NI Act Lie Against a Partnership/ Trust/  Society?
• Law on Hindu Religious  Endowments
  • Philosophy of  Idol  Worship
  • Is an Idol a Perpetual  Minor?
  • Hindu Temples & Law of  Trusts
  • Law of Mutts and Other Hindu Endowments
  • Shebaits & Mahants and Law of Trustees
• Temples, Gurudwaras, Churches and  Mosques  –  General
  • Legal Personality of Temples, Gurudwaras, Churches and  Mosques
• Constitutional Principles
  • Secularism and Art. 25 & 26 of the Indian  Constitution
  • Secularism & Freedom of Religion in Indian  Panorama
  • ‘Muslim Women: Ban to Enter Mosques, Is it Unconstitutional
  • Parsi Women Excommunication, Unconstitutional.
  • Knanaya Endogamy & Constitution of  India
  • State & Court – Protectors of All Charities
  • Striking Down Legislation Relating to a Trust as Violative of  Article 14 and  300A
• Ayodhya and Sabarimala Disputes
  • Ayodhya  Disputes:  M. Siddiq case – Pragmatic Verdict
  • Sabarimala Review Petitions & Reference to 9-Judge  Bench
  • SABARIMALA REVIEW and Conflict in Findings between Shirur Mutt Case & Durgah Committee  Case
• General
  • Public Trusts and (State) Endowments/Trusts Acts
  • Public Trusts and Indian Trusts Act – An  Overview
  • Business by Charitable Trusts &  Institutions