Goverdhan v. State of Rajasthan: Is it Contrary to the Statutory Mandate under Section 293(1) CrPC?

No. It aligns with the statutory framework. The Apex Court also Followed the Legal Logic Employed by the Earlier Decisions.

Saji Koduvath, Advocate, Kottayam.

Abstract

Under S. 293 of the CrPC, the report of a Government-scientific-expert will be admissible, even if the expert is not examined.

Section 293(1) CrPC reads as under:

• (1) Any document purporting to be a report under the hand of a Government scientific expert to whom this Section applies, upon any matter or thing duly submitted to him for examination or analysis and report in the course of any proceeding under this Code, may be used as evidence in any inquiry, trial or other proceeding under this Code.”

Deviation from Law

But, in Goverdhan v. The State of Rajasthan, 2026 INSC 1190, 2026 KLT(Online) 4762; 2026 KHC(Online) 6843 (Sandeep Mehta and Justice Devendra Kumar Upadhyaya, JJ.), followed the well-reasoned earlier decisions of the Apex Court and held as under:

• “Thus, if, at all, the prosecution wishes to rely upon the report of a handwriting expert in order to prove and attribute the handwriting on a particular document to that of another person, it is essential to examine the handwriting expert in evidence because handwriting comparison is not a perfect science and may be the subject matter of different interpretations. Hence, testing the opinion of the handwriting expert on the rigour of cross-examination is essential before the report can be relied upon. Such reports are not admissible under Section 293 CrPC (corresponding to Section 329 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023).”

The Apex Court quoted Magan Bihari Lal v. State of Punjab, (1977) 2 SCC 210, in extenso to point out – it is well settled that the science of handwriting identification is not infallible and that the opinion of a handwriting expert must be approached with due caution. It reads as under:

• “In Magan Bihari Lal v. State of Punjab, (1977) 2 SCC 210, this Court emphasised the inherent limitations of such opinion evidence and cautioned against founding a conviction solely upon the opinion of a handwriting expert without adequate corroboration. The relevant observations in Magan Bihari Lal (supra) are reproduced hereinbelow:-
  • “7. In the first place, it may be noted that the appellant was at the material time a Guard in the employment of the Railway Administration with his headquarters at Agra and he had nothing to do with the train by which wagon No. SEKG 40765 was despatched from Munda to Bikaner nor with the train which carried that wagon from Agra to Ludhiana. He was not a Guard on either of these two trains. There was also no evidence to connect the appellant with the theft of the blank Railway Receipt at Banmore Station. It is indeed difficult to see how the appellant, who was a small employee in the Railway Administration, could have possibly come into possession of the blank Railway Receipt from Banmore Station which was not within his jurisdiction at any time. It is true that B. Lal, the handwriting expert, deposed that the handwriting on the forged Railway Receipt Ex. PW 10/A was that of the same person who wrote the specimen handwritings Ex. PW 27/37 to 27/57, that is the appellant, but we think it would be extremely hazardous to condemn the appellant merely on the strength of opinion evidence of a handwriting expert. It is now well settled that expert opinion must always be received with great caution and perhaps none so with more caution than the opinion of a handwriting expert. There is a profusion of precedential authority which holds that it is unsafe to base a conviction solely on expert opinion without substantial corroboration. This rule has been universally acted upon and it has almost become a rule of law. It was held by this Court in Ram Chandra v. State of U.P. [AIR 1957 SC 381 : 1957 Cri LJ 559] that it is unsafe to treat expert handwriting opinion as sufficient basis for conviction, but it may be relied upon when supported by other items of internal and external evidence. This Court again pointed out in Ishwari Prasad Mishra v. Md. Isa [AIR 1963 SC 1728 : (1963) 3 SCR 722] that expert evidence of handwriting can never be conclusive because it is, after all, opinion evidence, and this view was reiterated in Shashi Kumar Banerjee v. Subodh Kumar Banerjee [AIR 1964 SC 529] where it was pointed out by this Court that experts evidence as to handwriting being opinion evidence can rarely, if ever, take the place of substantive evidence and before acting on such evidence, it would be desirable to consider whether it is corroborated either by clear direct evidence or by circumstantial evidence. This Court had again occasion to consider the evidentiary value of expert opinion in regard to handwriting in Fakhruddin v. State of M.P. [AIR 1967 SC 1326 : (1967) 2 SCJ 885 : 1967 Cri LJ 1197] and it uttered a note of caution pointing out that it would be risky to found a conviction solely on the evidence of a handwriting expert and before acting upon such evidence, the court must always try to see whether it is corroborated by other evidence, direct or circumstantial. It is interesting to note that the same view is also echoed in the judgments of English and American courts. Vide Gurney v. Langlands [1822 5 B and Ald 330] and Matter of Alfred Foster’s Will [34 Mich 21] . The Supreme Court of Michigan pointed out in the last-mentioned case:
  • “Everyone knows how very unsafe it is to rely upon any one’s opinion concerning the niceties of penmanship — Opinions are necessarily received, and may be valuable, but at best this kind of evidence is a necessary evil.”
• We need not subscribe to the extreme view expressed by the Supreme Court of Michigan, but there can be no doubt that this type of evidence, being opinion evidence is by its very nature, weak and infirm and cannot of itself from the basis for a conviction. We must, therefore, try to see whether, in the present case, there is, apart from the evidence of the handwriting expert B. Lal, any other evidence connecting the appellant with the offence.”

Conclusion: Sound Judicial Reasoning Aligned with Settled Law

Expert reports are, by their very nature, opinion evidence requiring reasoned analysis and careful judicial scrutiny. In Goverdhan, as in Magan Bihari Lal, the Supreme Court firmly anchored its reasoning in the specific facts of the case and the inherent limitations of handwriting identification. Far from being fundamentally flawed or running counter to the statutory mandate under Section 293(1) CrPC, the Court’s approach reflects sound legal logic and adheres faithfully to well-established precedent.

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Civil Suits: Procedure & Principles

Book No, 1 –  Civil Procedure Code

• Death of a Party Before Judgment: When Does It Invalidate the Decree?
• No Binding Precedent -If the Court Failed to Consider Relevant Statutory Provision, in Earlier Decision
• ‘Rateable Distribution’: Law Designed to Ensure Fairness. Insights from Koshy Abraham v. Shaji, 2026:KER:20267.
• Law on Overruling: Principles Established in an ‘Overruled’ Decision Remain Good Law If Left Untouched
• ‘Plaintiff to Win on His Own Title’ v. ‘Each Party Must Succeed on the Strength of Its Own Title’
• Venkatesha v. KM Venkatamuniyappa: A Rectification Deed Cannot, in the Guise of Correcting an Error, Substitute the Very Subject Matter
• Striking off defence under Order XV Rule 5 CPC (U.P. Amendment): Consequence is Drastic; Mere Denial of the Landlord–Tenant Relationship Not Absolve Tenant from the Statutory Obligation to Deposit  Rent
• Maurice W. Innis v. Lily Kazrooni – Executing Court Executes Decree as it Stands, Without any Modification. It cannot Go Beyond or Vary its  Term
• Channappa v.   Parvatewwa, 2026 INSC 343: Suit Dismissed for Order II Rule 2 Bar: For No ‘Consequential Declaration’ on Title, in the Earlier Suit
• Applicability of Res Judicata on IA Orders (at Different Stages of the Same Suit)
• Rejection of Plaint is a Procedural Termination, and Dismissal of Suit on Preliminary Issue is a Summary Decision on  Merits
• Can a Suit be Rejected on the Inherent Power of the  Court?
• Did the Supreme Court Depart From its Earlier Position in Hussain Ahmed Choudhury v. Habibur Rahman, 2025 SCC OnLine SC 892, in its Subsequent Decision in Shanti Devi v. Jagan Devi, 2025 INSC  1105?
• Time City Infrastructure and Housing Ltd v. State of UP: Non-Compliance in taking Postal Steps – Court Should Vacate the Ad-Interim Injunction  Order
• “Due Process of Law” in Civil  Suits
• Can a suit be Rejected (Order VII rule 11 CPC) on the Ground of Res  Judicata?
• Operation Asha   v. Shelly Batra, a Landmark Judgment on Sec. 92 CPC– Critical  Appreciation
• If a Sharer Dies & the LRs are Not Impleaded – Partition Suit as a Whole Abates. But the Court SHOULD Direct Either Side to Take Steps to Bring in the Legal  Heirs
• Order IX Rule 9 CPC: Earlier Suit for Injunction; Subsequent Suit for Recovery & Injunction – No  Bar
• H. Anjanappa v. A. Prabhakar: An ‘Aggrieved’ Stranger or a ‘Prejudicially Affected’ Third-Party (also) Can File Appeal with the ‘Leave of the  Court’.
• Replication, Rejoinder and Amendment of  Pleadings
• Can a Suit be Withdrawn in Appeal, on the Ground that Appeal is Continuation of the  Suit?
• Suit and Counterclaim – No Necessity of Two Decrees; No Need for Two Appeals: Basudev v. Sanjay Kumar
• Does  Registration of a Document give  Notice to the Whole  World?
• Suit under Sec. 6, Specific Relief Act – Is it a ‘Summary Suit’ under Order XXXVII  CPC?
• Is it Mandatory to Lift the Attachment on Dismissal of the Suit? Will the Attachment Orders Get Revived on Restoration of  Suit?
• Will Interlocutory Orders and Applications Get Revived on Restoration of  Suit?
• Can an ‘Ex-parte’ Defendant Cross Examine Plaintiff’s  Witness?
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Civil Rights and Jurisdiction of Civil  Courts
• Res Judicata and Constructive Res  Judicata
• Constructive Res Judicata
• Applicability of Res Judicata on IA Orders (at Different Stages of the Same Suit)
• Res Judicata and Judicial  Precedent
• Judicial Precedent and Res Judicata – a Couplet
• What is Binding Judicial Precedent – In a  Nutshell
• Ratio Decidendi (alone) Forms a Precedent, Not a Final  Order
• No Binding Precedent if Relevant Statutory Provision is Not Considered
• Divergent Decisions of Co-Equal Benches and Doctrine of Decisions ‘PER INCURIAM’
• No Res judicata on Finding on Title in an Injunction  Suit
• Res Judicata: ‘Same issue’ must have been ‘Adjudicated’ in the former&nb sp;suit
• Res Judicata and Appeal: No Res Judicata on Adverse Findings, in a Favourable  Decree
• Principles of Rejection of Plaint under Order VII Rule 11 CPC
• A Suit Cannot be Rejected if there is a ‘Cause of Action’, for the Plaint discloses One ESSENTIAL FACT that Gives Rise to a ‘Right to Sue’
• Order II, Rule 2 CPC – Not to Vex Defendants Twice
• A Land Mark Decision on Order II rule 2,  CPC – Cuddalore Powergen Corporation Ltd. v. Chemplast Cuddalore Vinyls Ltd., Neutral Citation: 2025 INSC 73
• Order I rule 8, CPC (Representative Suit) When and How? Whether Order I rule 8 Decree  is Enforceable in  Execution?
• Pleadings Should be Specific;  Why?
• No Relief if No Prayer; No Relief if No Pleading
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree
• Pleadings in Defamation  Suits
• Judicial Admissions in Pleadings: Admissible Proprio Vigore Against the  Maker
• Previous Owner is Not a Necessary Party in a Recovery  Suit
• UNDUE INFLUENCE and PLEADINGS thereof in Indian  Law
• PLEADINGS IN ELECTION MATTERS
• Pleadings are to be Considered as a Whole. When Lack of Pleadings Amounts to a Material Flaw?
• When Declaration Needed for Injunction and Recover
• Law on Summons to Defendants and  Witnesses
• Notice to Produce Documents in Civil  Cases
• Production of Documents: Order 11, Rule 14 & Rule  12
• Sec. 91 CPC and Suits Against Wrongful  Acts
• Remedies Under Sec. 92  CPC
• Mandatory  Injunction – Law and Principles
• INJUNCTION is a ‘Possessory Remedy’ in Indian  Law
• Interrogatories: When Court Allows, When  Rejects?
• Decree in OI R8 CPC-Suit & Eo-Nomine  Parties
• Pecuniary & Subject-Matter Jurisdiction of Civil Courts
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent  Interests
• Doctrine of Substantial Representation in a Suit by or against an  Association
• Who are Necessary Parties, Proper Parties and Pro Forma Parties in  Suits
• What is Partnership, in Law? How to Sue a  Firm?
• ‘Legal Representatives’, Not ‘Legal Heirs’ to be Impleaded on Death of Plaintiff/Defendant
• Death of a Party Before Judgment: When Does It Invalidate the Decree?
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting  Onus
• Burden on Plaintiff to Prove Title; Weakness of Defence Will Not Entitle a  Decree
• Withholding Evidence and Adverse Inference
• Pendente Lite Transferee Cannot Resist or Obstruct Execution of a  Decree
• Family Settlement or Family Arrangement in  Law
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian  Law
• Will Findings of a Civil Court Outweigh Findings of a Criminal  Court?
• Relevancy of Civil Case Judgments in Criminal  Cases
• Waiver and Promissory  Estoppel
• Can a Christian Adopt? Will an adopted child get share in the property of adoptive&nbs p;parents?
• Principles of Equity in Indian  Law
• Thangam v.   Navamani Ammal: Did the Supreme Court lay down – Written Statements which deal with each allegation specifically, but not “para-wise”, are  vitiated?
• No Criminal Case on a Dispute Essentially Civil in  Nature.
• Doctrine of Substantial Representation in  Suits
• Order I rule 8, CPC (Representative Suit) When and How? Whether Order I rule 8 Decree  is Enforceable in  Execution?
• Appointment of Guardian for Persons Suffering from Disability or Illness: Inadequacy of Law – Shame to Law Making  Institutions
• Can Documents be Marked In Cross Examination, If Witness Admits  Them?
• Why Should Foundational or Crucial Documents Be Produced Along With the Plaint or  WS
• Fraudulent  or Void Transaction: Is ‘Declaration’ Necessary? No is the Answer: Shanti Devi v. Jagan Devi, 2025 INSC  1105.
• Civil Court to Adjudicate Title; Land Tribunal to Fix Tenancy; Taluk Land Board to Determine Plantation Exemption

Principles and Procedure

• Copyright and Copyright Infringement – Indian  Law
• Doctrines of ‘Legislation by Reference’ and ‘Legislation by  Incorporation’
• What is the Period of Limitation for a Suit on a Promissory  Note?
• Relevancy of a Civil Case Judgment in Criminal Cases: Does a Civil Court Judgment Bind a Criminal  Court?
• When can (i) a ‘Victim’ File an Appeal in a Criminal Case and   (ii) an ‘Aggrieved Person’ File an Appeal in a Civil  Case?
• Asian Paints Limited v. Ram Babu,  2025 INSC 828 – ‘Victim’ Can File an Appeal in a Criminal  Case
• BURDEN of PROOF is Static; ‘ONUS’ alone Shifts, According to Indian Law
• H. Anjanappa v. A. Prabhakar: An ‘Aggrieved’ Stranger or a ‘Prejudicially Affected’ Third-Party (also) Can File Appeal with the ‘Leave of the  Court’.
• Suit and Counterclaim – No Necessity of Two Decrees; No Need for Two Appeals: Basudev v. Sanjay Kumar
• Our Courts  Apply Different ‘STANDADARDS of  Proof’
• Ratio Decidendi (alone) Forms a Precedent, Not a Final  Order
• What is Binding Judicial Precedent – In a  Nutshell
• Divergent Decisions of Co-Equal Benches and Doctrine of Decisions ‘PER INCURIAM’
• BNSS – Major Changes from  CrPC
• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023: Important Changes from the Indian Penal  Code
• Substantive Rights and Mistakes & Procedural Defects in Judicial  Proceedings
• Can Documents be Marked In Cross Examination, If Witness Admits  Them?
• Will Boundaries of Properties (Always) Preferred Over Survey Number, Extent, Side Measurements,  etc.?
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree
• In a Suit for Fixation of Boundary, Property of the Defendant Need Not be  Scheduled
• All Illegal Agreements are Void; but All Void Agreements are Not  Illegal
• Doctrines on Ultra Vires, Rule of Law, Judicial Review, Nullification of Mandamus, and Removing the BASIS of the Judgment
• Can an ‘Ex-parte’ Defendant Cross Examine Plaintiff’s  Witness?
• Will – Probate and Letters of  Administration
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court and ‘Preponderance of Probabilities’ & ‘Probative Value of  Evidence
• Effect of Not Cross-Examining a Witness & Effect of Not Facing Complete Cross-Examination by the  Witness
• Suggestions & Admissions by Counsel, in Cross Examination to  Witnesses
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• Best Evidence Rule in Indian  Law
• When Declaration Needed for Injunction and Recover
• ‘Plaintiff to Win on His Own Title’ Vs. ‘Each Party Must Succeed on the Strength of Its Own Title’
• Pleadings Should be Specific;  Why?
• Does Alternate Remedy Bar Civil Suits and Writ  Petitions?
• Void, Voidable, Ab Initio Void, and Sham  Transactions
• If a Document is Per Se Illegal, or Void Ab Initio, it Need Not be Set  Aside
• Can Courts Award Interest on Equitable  Grounds?
• Natural Justice – Not an Unruly Horse
• Krishnadatt Awasthy v. State Of M.P, 29 January, 2025 – Law on Natural Justice  Revisited
• ‘Sound-mind’ and ‘Unsound-Mind’
• Prescriptive Rights – Inchoate until the Title thereof is Upheld by a Competent  Court
• ‘Title’ and ‘Ownership’ in Indian  Law
• Can a Party to Suit Examine Opposite Party, as of  Right?
• Forfeiture of Earnest Money and Reasonable  Compensation
• Doctrine of ‘Right to be Forgotten’ in Indian  Law
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Cheating and Breach of Contract: Distinction – Fraudulent Intention at the time of Promise.
• Declaration of Title & Recovery of Possession: Art. 65, not Art. 58, Limitation Act  Governs
• What is COGNIZANCE and Application of Mind by a  Magistrate?
• Shri Mukund Bhavan Trust v. Shrimant Chhatrapati Udayan Raje Pratapsinh Maharaj Bhonsle: Rejection of Plaint on ‘Bar of Limitation’ on Plea of  Fraud.
• No Rejection of suit — if Plaint discloses a ‘Cause of Action’– ’Chinmaya Mission Educational & Cultural Trust v. Sree Hari R. Menon, 2026 KER 56668 (CR): A Suit Cannot be Rejected if there is a ‘Cause of Action’, for the Plaint discloses One ESSENTIAL FACT that Gives Rise to a ‘Right to Sue’
• Why Should Foundational or Crucial Documents Be Produced Along With the Plaint or  WS
• Pradeep Nirankarnath Sharma v. The State of Gujarat: The Police have No Discretion to conduct a Preliminary Inquiry Before Registering an FIR in Cognizable  Offences

COMMISIONS Under CPC

• Powers and Duties of Commissioners to Make Local Investigations, Under CPC
• Law on Survey Commission in Civil Suits
• Is it Mandatory to  Set Aside  the Commission Report – Where a Second Commissioner is  Appointed?
• Can a Commission be Appointed to Find Out the  Physical  Possession  of a  Property?
• Can the Court issue a Second Commission without Setting Aside First Commission  Report?

PROPERTY LAW

Title, ownership and Possession

• ‘Plaintiff to Win on His Own Title’ Vs. ‘Each Party Must Succeed on the Strength of Its Own Title’
• Immovable Property–‘LIMITATION’ on Suits
• Title Deed Lost and Certified Copy Unavailable: The Law Does Not Leave the Owner Without a Remedy
• Right to Property: A Constitutional and Human Right That Cannot Be Taken Away on Mere Technical Grounds of Delay or the Fault of Public Authorities
• Gratuitous Possession – Owner can Reclaim Even Without Knowledge of the  Other
• Suit on Possessory Remedy, Other side Admits Possession; Should the Will be  Proved?
• M.V. Ramachandrasa v.   Mahendra Watch Company, 2026 INSC 348: Decision on Subletting Without Consent of  Landlord
• ‘Nemo Dat Quod Non  Habet’
• Section 27,  Limitation Act Gives-Rise to a Substantive Right so as to Seek Declaration and  Recovery
• Sale Deeds Without Consideration –  Void
• Tenancy at Sufferance in Indian  Law
• “Due Process of Law” in Civil  Suits
• OWNER v. LANDLORD: ‘Recovery’ and ‘Eviction’ – Two Distinct Legal Concepts
• Revenue  Settlement Registers of Travancore in 1910, Basic Record of Land  matters
• Govt. of AP v. Thummala Krishna Rao, AIR 1982 SC 1081, 1982 (2) SCC 134, Misread by High  Courts
• Can the Forest Tribunal Make a Finding on  Title?

Recovery of Possession:

• Immovable Property–‘LIMITATION’ on Suits
• Suit on Possessory Remedy, Other side Admits Possession; Should the Will be  Proved?
• Recovery of Possession Based on Title and on Earlier  Possession
• Recovery of Possession (Based on Title) and Eviction (of  Tenants)
• Declaration of Title & Recovery of Possession: Art. 65, not Art. 58, Limitation Act  Governs
• Title and Ownership and Possessory Title in Indian  Law
• Does  Registration of a Document give  Notice to the Whole  World?
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• POSSESSION is a Substantive Right in Indian  Law
• 22nd Law Commission   Report on ‘Law on Adverse Possession’
• Adverse Possession Against Government
• Government of Kerala v. Joseph – Law on Adverse Possession Against Government
• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• How to Plead Adverse Possession? Adverse Possession: An Evolving Concept
• Adverse Possession: Burden to Plead Sabotaged
• Does ‘Abandonment’ Give rise to a Recognised Right in Indian  Law?
• When ‘Possession Follows Title’; ‘Title Follows Possession’?
• Ultimate Ownership of All Property Vests in State; It is an Incident of  Sovereignty.
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• Can Transfer of Registry or Mutation and Payment of Tax be Denied, pointing out Revenue Recovery, Attachment or Bank  Loan?
• Preemption  is a Very Weak Right; For, Property Right is a Constitutional & Human  Right
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent Interests
• Family Settlement or Family Arrangement in  Law
• INJUNCTION is a ‘Possessory Remedy’ in Indian  Law
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian  Law
• Kesar Bai v. Genda Lal – Does Something Remain  Untold?
• Grant in Law
• Termination of Tenancy (& Grant) by Forfeiture (for Claiming  Title)
• SUIT on TITLE: Landlord can Recover Property on GENERAL TITLE (though Tenancy Not Proved) if Defendant Falsely Claimed Independent  Title
• OWNER v. LANDLORD: ‘Recovery’ and ‘Eviction’ – Two Distinct Legal Concepts
• Even the Rightful Owner is NOT entitled to Eject a Trespasser, by  Force
• Ryotwari  System in  Madras

Survey, Revenue Records, Mutation

• Title is Not Proved by Revenue Entries; Title Claims are Investigated by Civil Courts, Not by High  Courts
• Revenue  Settlement Registers of Travancore in 1910, Basic Record of Land  matters
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• Can Transfer of Registry or Mutation and Payment of Tax be Denied, pointing out Revenue Recovery, Attachment or Bank  Loan?
• Survey Authorities Do Not Decide  TITLE
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree
• Will Boundaries of Properties (Always) Preferred Over Survey Number, Extent, Side Measurements,  etc.?
• Survey under Survey Act – Raises a Presumption on  Boundary; though Not Confer  Title

Adverse Possession

• Immovable Property–‘LIMITATION’ on Suits
• Dispossession and Knowledge: Essential Requirements of Adverse  Possession
• Adverse Possession: Legal Principles and Classic Cases in the UK and the  US
• Adverse Possession: Should Unobstructed Possession Subsist for 12 Years Immediately Preceding the  Suit?
• Illegal, Mistaken or Fraudulent Registration of Deed, and Subsequent Mutation: No Adverse  Possession
• Adverse Possession: A Concise  Overview
• What is Adverse Possession  in Indian  Law?
• Neelam Gupta v. Rajendra Kumar Gupta (AIR 2024 SC 5374) – Supreme Court Denied the Tenant’s Claim of Adverse  Possession
• Adverse Possession: How to Plead Adverse Possession? Adverse Possession: An Evolving  Concept
• Adverse Possession Against Government
• Govt. of AP v. Thummala Krishna Rao, AIR 1982 SC 1081, 1982 (2) SCC 134, Misread by High  Courts
• Adverse Possession: Burden to Plead Sabotaged
• Does ‘Abandonment’ Give rise to a Recognised Right in Indian  Law?
• When ‘Possession Follows Title’; ‘Title Follows Possession’?
• Government of Kerala v. Joseph – Law on Adverse Possession Against Government
• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• ‘Possessory Title’ in Indian  Law
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• Ouster and Dispossession in Adverse  Possession
• Declaration of Title & Recovery of Possession: Art. 65, not Art. 58, Limitation Act  Governs
• Mallavva v. Kalsammanavara Kalamma, 2024 INSC 1021, Composite Suit (Cancellation & Recovery) – Substantive Relief Determines Limitation
• The Laws of ‘Doctrine of Election’ and ‘Doctrine of  Waiver’

Land Laws/ Transfer of Property Act

• Bona Fide Purchaser for Value Deserves Stronger Equity than a Prior Contract  Holder
• Travancore Royal Pattom Proclamations of 1040  (1865 AD) and 1061 (1886 AD), And 1922 Devaswom  Proclamation
• Revenue  Settlement Registers of Travancore in 1910, Basic Record of Land  matters
• Tenancy at Sufferance in Indian  Law
• Freehold Property in  Law
• What is Patta or  Pattayam?
• Does ‘Pandaravaka Pattom’ in Kerala Denote  Full-Ownership?
• Previous Owner is Not a Necessary Party in a Recovery  Suit
• Recovery of Possession Based on Title and on Earlier  Possession
• Recovery of Possession (Based on Title) and Eviction (of  Tenants)
• Transfer of Property with Conditions & Contingent  Interests
• Vested Remainder and Contingent Remainder
• Vested interest and Contingent  Interest
• Rule Against Perpetuity –  Simplified
• Ultimate Ownership of All Property Vests in State; It is an Incident of  Sovereignty.
• Land Acquired Cannot be Returned – Even if it is Not Used for the Purpose  Acquired
• ‘Mutation’ by Revenue Authorities & Survey will not Confer ‘Title’
• Can Transfer of Registry or Mutation and Payment of Tax be Denied, pointing out Revenue Recovery, Attachment or Bank  Loan?
• Harrisons Malayalam Ltd. v. State of Kerala (2026:KER:19290): Transfer of Registry can be Claimed only on Proper Application, with Supporting  Documents
• In Harrisons Malayalam Ltd. v. State of Kerala (2026:KER:19290), it is Held: No Findings on Title in the Previous Decision – Harrisons Malayalam Ltd. v. State of Kerala, 2018 (2) KLT 369
• Harrisons Malayalam Ltd. v. State of Kerala (2026-2 KLT 587) held to the Effect that the ‘Land Holder’ must be a LAWFUL ‘Registered Holder’
• FERA, 1973 And Transfer of Immovable Property by a  Foreigner
• Marumakkathayam – A System of Law and Way of Life Prevailed in  Kerala
• Land Tenures, and History of Land Derivation, in  Kerala
• Glen Leven Estate v. State of Kerala: Not Correctly  Decided?
• Sale Deeds Without Consideration –  Void
• If a Document is Per Se Illegal, or Void Ab Initio, it Need Not be Set  Aside
• Law on SUCCESSION CERTIFICATE and LEGAL HEIRSHIP  CERTIFICATE
• Sec. 7 Easements Act – Natural Advantages Arising from the Situation of Land & Natural Flow of  Water
• Grant in Law
• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• Title of the Government Property in India: Government is the Ultimate Owner of Every Property; Hence, Government Need Not Prove  Title.
• Survey under Survey Act – Raises a Presumption on  Boundary; though Not Confer  Title
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree
• In a Suit for Fixation of Boundary, Property of the Defendant Need Not be  Scheduled
• Property Rights Cannot be Taken Away on Technical Grounds of  Delay: Rama S/o Gunda Malkapure v. The State of Maharashtra

Land Reform Laws

• Relevant Provisions of  Kerala Land Reforms Act
• Title of the Government Property in India: Government is the Ultimate Owner of Every Property; Hence, Government Need Not Prove  Title.
• Grant in Law
• Land Tenures, and History of Land Derivation, in  Kerala

•• Kerala Land Reforms Act – Provisions on Plantation-Tenancy and Land-Tenancy in a Nutshell •• Plantation Exemption in Kerala Land Reforms Act–in a Nutshell •• Exempted Plantation Land – In whom Ownership Vests •• Plantation-Exemption Does Not Confer Ownership over the Land •• Can the Ownership of (Exempted) Plantation (Above Ceiling Limit) be Changed? Can Plantation be Fragmented? •• Do the Plantation-Tenants have a Right to Seek ‘Assignment’ of the Entire Plantation-Tenancy-Land, beyond the Ceiling Limit (under Purchase Certificates)? •• Government is the OWNER of All Leasehold-Plantation-Lands in Kerala. •• Liability of Certain Plantation Tenants to Pay Rent To the Government: New Rules can be Made for its Effective Implementation •• Law on Acquisition of Private (Leasehold) Plantation Land in Kerala •• Glen Leven Estate v. State of Kerala: Not Correctly Decided? •• Plantation-Tenants Not Approached The Land Tribunal are Ineligible for Plantation-Exemption-Orders from the Land Board •• Balanoor Plantations & Industries Ltd. v. State of Kerala – Based on the Principle: LT to fix Tenancy; TLB to Fix Plantation-Exemption •• Acquisition of (Exempted) Plantation Property: Should the Govt. Pay Full Land Value to Land-Owners/Tenants? •• Civil Court to Adjudicate Title; Land Tribunal to Fix Tenancy; Taluk Land Board to Determine Plantation Exemption •• Relevant Provisions of Kerala Land Reforms Act – on Purchase Certificate,  Plantation Exemption & Ceiling Area – in a Nutshell

• Should the Government Prove Title in Recovery  Suits
• ‘Janmam’ Right is FREEHOLD Interest and ‘Estate’ in Constitution – By Royal Proclamation of 1899, The Travancore Sircar became Janmi of Poonjar Raja’s  Land
• 1910 Settlement Register of Travancore – Basic Record of Land  Matters

Power of attorney

• M.S. Ananthamurthy v. J. Manjula: Mere Word ‘Irrevocable’ Does Not Make a POWER OF ATTORNEY Irrevocable
• Can a Power of Attorney file a Civil Suit? Is there any bar by virtue of Manisha Mahendra Gala v. Shalini Bhagwan Avatramani, 2024-6 SCC  130?
• No Adjudication If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently  Stamped
• Notary Attested Power-of-Attorney Sufficient for Registration
• Notary-Attested Documents and Presumptions
• Permission when a Power of Attorney Holder Files  Suit
• If Power of Attorney himself Executes the Document, S. 33 Registration Act will NOT be  attracted
• Should a Power of Attorney for Sale must have been Registered –
• Is Registered Power of Attorney Necessary for Registration of a Deed?  No.

Evidence Act – General

• A Defective Legislative Piece as regards Documents “Admitted in Writing” in the (Old) Evidence Act is Corrected in S. 58 of the BSA
• Tharammel Peethambaran vs T. Ushakrishnan, Pankaj Mithal, S.V.N. Bhatti, JJ.,  AIR 2026 SC 938: A Classic Decision on Secondary Evidence
• Newspaper Reports are ‘Hearsay Secondary  Evidence’
• Marking Secondary Evidence Without Objection: Two Apparently Divergent Views on Waiver and the Mode of Proof of Documents
• Major Changes in the Evidence Act by Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Sec. 27 Recovery/Discovery in Evidence Act and Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Evidence in Court – General  Principles
• Expert Evidence and Appreciation of  Evidence
• Handwriting Expert Evidence: Relevant, But Merely an  Opinion
• How to Contradict a Witness under Sec. 145, Evidence  Act
• Can a Witness be Confronted with a Photograph During Cross-Examination Without its Prior  Production (Anu C.R. v. State of Kerala)
• Withholding Evidence and Adverse Inference
• Best Evidence Rule in Indian  Law
• What is Collateral  Purpose?
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting  Onus
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court and ‘Preponderance of Probabilities’ & ‘Probative Value of  Evidence
• Effect of Not Cross-Examining a Witness & Effect of Not Facing Complete Cross Examination by the  Witness
• Suggestions & Admissions by Counsel, in Cross Examination to  Witnesses
• Proof of Documents – Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Public Documents: Proof and  Presumption
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered  Will?
• Significance of Scientific Evidence in Judicial  Process
• Polygraphy, Narco Analysis and Brain Mapping Tests
• What is Section 27 Evidence Act – Recovery or  Discovery?
• How ‘Discovery’ under Section 27, Evidence Act,  Proved?
• Pictorial Testimony Theory and Silent Witnesses  Theory
• Sec. 35 Evidence Act: Presumption of Truth and Probative  Value
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act

Sec. 65B

• Grammatically and Contextually, the Non Obstante Clause in Section 63(1) BSA is Confined to the Deeming Fiction
• Is a Section 63(4) Certificate an Essential Prerequisite for the Admission of a Photograph in  Evidence?
• Admissibility of Electronic Evidence: Does Section 61 of the BSA Permit Oral Proof (Overriding Arjun  Panditrao)
• Law on Electronic Evidence in India: A Comparative Analysis with Other  Jurisdictions
• Hash Value Certificate – Mandatory or  Directory
• Sakshya Adhiniyam (Literally) Mandates Hashing the Original. But the Established Jurisprudence Requires Hashing the  Copy.
• Sec. 27 Recovery/Discovery in Evidence Act and Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Electronic Evidence under   S. 61, 62, 63 of the  BSA
• Sec. 65B (Electronic Records) and Bhartiya Sakshya Adhiniyam,  2023
• Sec. 65B, Evidence Act: Arjun Paditrao  Criticised.
• Sec. 65B Evidence Act  Simplified
• ‘STATEMENTS’ alone can be proved by ‘CERTIFICATE’ u/s. 65B
• Sec. 65B,   Evidence Act: Certificate forms
• “Nothing  In This Adhiniyam Shall Apply To Deny The Admissibility” – New Provision (Sec. 61, BSA) to ensure that Sec. 65B (Sec. 63, BSA) is an enabling&nbs p;provision
• Certificate is Required Only for ‘Computer Output’; Not for ‘Electronic Records’: Arjun Panditrao  Explored.
• How to Prove ‘Whatsap Messages’, ‘Facebook’ and ‘Website’ in  Courts?

Admission, Relevancy and Proof

• ‘Admission’ in Indian  Law
• Relevancy, Admissibility and Proof of  Documents
• Handwriting Expert Evidence: Relevant, But Merely an  Opinion
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on  ‘Admission’
• Admission by itself Cannot Confer  Title
• Judicial Admissions in Pleadings:  Admissible  Proprio Vigore  Against the  Maker
• Document Exhibited in the Writ Petition as ‘True Copy’ – Can it be Used in a Civil Suit as ‘Admission’?
• Modes of Proof of  Documents
• Proof of  Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Should Objection to Marking Documents be Raised When it is Admitted; Is it Enough to Challenge them in Cross-Examination?
• Burden of Proof – Initial Burden and Shifting  Onus
• Burden on Plaintiff to Prove Title; Weakness of Defence Will Not Entitle a  Decree
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court and ‘Preponderance of Probabilities’ & ‘Probative Value of  Evidence
• Production, Admissibility & Proof Of  Documents
• Proof of Documents – Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Can Documents be Marked In Cross Examination, If Witness Admits  Them?
• Substantive  Documents, and Documents used for Refreshing Memory and Contradicting
• Oral Evidence on Contents of Document, Irrelevant
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Relevancy of Civil Case Judgments in Criminal  Cases
• Prem Raj v.   Poonamma Menon (SC), April 2, 2024 – An Odd Decision on ‘Civil Court Judgment does not Bind Criminal  Court’

Law on Documents

• Public Documents: Proof and  Presumption
• Public Documents Admissible Without Formal  Proof
• Admitted Documents – Can the Court Refrain from Marking, for no Formal  Proof?
• Does  Registration of a Document give  Notice to the Whole  World?
• Is Registration of a Deed, Notice to  Government?
• Production, Admissibility & Proof Of  Documents
• Relevancy, Admissibility and Proof of  Documents
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on  ‘Admission’
• Effect of Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Stand Proved?
• Time Limit for Registration of  Documents
• Registration of Documents Executed out of  India
• How to Prove a Will, in Court?Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered  Will?
• Are RTI Documents Admissible in Evidence as ‘Public  Documents’?
• Oral Evidence on Contents of Document, Irrelevant
• Proof of  Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Notary-Attested Documents and Presumptions
• Documents Produced With the Plaint are Treated As ‘Part of The  Plaint’
• What is Collateral  Purpose?
• No Application Needed for  Filing or Admitting  Copy
• Presumptions on Documents and Truth of  Contents
• Presumptions on Registered Documents & Truth of Contents
• Notice to Produce Documents in Civil  Cases
• Production of Documents: Order 11, Rule 14 & Rule  12
• Modes of Proof of  Documents
• Secondary Evidence  of Documents & Objections to Admissibility  – How &  When?
• Tharammel Peethambaran vs T. Ushakrishnan, Pankaj Mithal, S.V.N. Bhatti, JJ.,  AIR 2026 SC 938: A Classic Decision on Secondary Evidence
• Marking Secondary Evidence Without Objection: Two Apparently Divergent Views on Waiver and the Mode of Proof of Documents
• Should Objection to Marking Documents be Raised When it is Admitted; Is it Enough to Challenge them in Cross-Examination?
• 30 Years Old Documents and Presumption of Truth of Contents, under Sec. 90 Evidence  Act
• Unstamped & Unregistered Documents and Collateral  Purpose
• Adjudication as to Proper Stamp under Stamp  Act
• Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Cancellation of Sale Deeds and Settlement Deeds & Powers of Sub-Registrar in cancelling  Deeds
• Cancellation, Avoidance or Declaration of a Void or Voidable  Deed
• If a Document is Per Se Illegal, or Void Ab Initio, it Need Not be Set  Aside
• Can the True Owner Seek Cancellation  of a Deed, Executed by a Stranger to the  Property
• Substantive  Documents, and Documents used for Refreshing Memory and Contradicting
• How to Contradict a Witness under Sec. 145, Evidence  Act
• Can a Witness be Confronted with a Photograph During Cross-Examination Without its Prior  Production?
• Visual and Audio Evidence (Including  Photographs, Cassettes, Tape-recordings, Films, CCTV Footage, CDs, e-mails, Chips, Hard-discs,  Pen-drives)
• Photograph Evidence, Its Admissibility and Photo-Identification in Court  Cases
• Pictorial Testimony Theory and Silent Witnesses  Theory
• No Adjudication Needed If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently  Stamped
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific  Performance
• Impounding of Documents – When Produced; Cannot Wait Till it is  Exhibited
• Sec. 35 Evidence Act: Presumption of Truth and Probative  Value
• How to Prove Resolutions of a Company; Are Minutes  Necessary?

Documents – Proof and Presumption

• Contents of a Document are to be Proved in Court by Producing Original or Secondary  Evidence
• Marking Secondary Evidence Without Objection: Two Apparently Divergent Views on Waiver and the Mode of Proof of Documents
• Handwriting Expert Evidence: Relevant, But Merely an  Opinion
• Public Documents: Proof and  Presumption
• Is a Section 63(4) Certificate an Essential Prerequisite for the Admission of a Photograph in  Evidence?
• Can the Court Refuse to Mark a (Relevant and Admissible) Document, for (i) there is No Formal Proof or (ii) it is a  Photocopy?
• Photograph Evidence, Its Admissibility and Photo-Identification in Court  Cases
• Marking of Photocopy and Law on Marking Documents on Admission (Without Formal  Proof)
• Proof of Documents – Admission, Expert Evidence, Presumption etc.
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Modes of Proof of  Documents
• ‘Admission’ in Indian  Law
• Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Proved
• Proof on ‘Truth of Contents’ of Documents, in Indian Evidence  Act
• Admitted Documents – Can the Court Refrain from Marking, for no Formal  Proof?
• Admission of Documents in Evidence on  ‘Admission’
• Effect of Marking Documents Without  Objection – Do Contents Stand Proved?
• Proof of  Documents & Objections To Admissibility – How & When?
• Should Objection to Marking Documents be Raised When it is Admitted; Is it Enough to Challenge them in Cross-Examination?
• Presumptions on Documents and Truth of  Contents
• Presumptions on Registered Documents & Truth of Contents
• Secondary Evidence  of Documents & Objections to Admissibility  – How &  When?
• 30 Years Old Documents and Presumption of Truth of Contents, under Sec. 90 Evidence  Act

Interpretation

• Interpretation of Documents – Literal Rule, Mischief Rule and Golden  Rule
• Golden  Rule of Interpretation is Misapplied in Several Cases in  India
• Interpretation of Statutes – Literal Rule, Mischief Rule and Golden  Rule
• Golden  Rule of Interpretation is Not the Application of Plain Meaning of the  Words
• Interpretation of Wills
• Appreciation of Evidence by Court and ‘Preponderance of Probabilities’ & ‘Probative Value of  Evidence‘
• Mistake in Boundary or Survey Number will not Invalidate a Document; Insignificant Errors in Pleadings will not Disentitle a  Decree

Contract Act

• Jaspal Singh v. Ashwani Kumar: Earnest Money Refund Clause Does Not Bar Specific Performance unless it is a Substitute for Sale
• What is the Period of Limitation for a Suit on a Promissory  Note?
• Can Filing a Suit Amount to Notice of Termination of  Contract
• Godrej Projects Development Limited v. Anil Karlekar, 2025 INSC 143 – Supreme Court Missed to State  Something
• ‘Sound-mind’ and ‘Unsound-Mind’ in Indian Civil  Laws
• Forfeiture of Earnest Money and Reasonable  Compensation
• Who has to fix Damages in Tort and  Contract?
• UNDUE INFLUENCE and PLEADINGS thereof in Indian  Law
• All Illegal Agreements are Void; but All Void Agreements are Not  Illegal
• If a Document is Per Se Illegal, or Void Ab Initio, it Need Not be Set  Aside
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific  Performance
• Cheating and Breach of Contract: Distinction – Fraudulent Intention at the time of Promise.

Specific Relief Act

• Jaspal Singh v. Ashwani Kumar: Earnest Money Refund Clause Does Not Bar Specific Performance unless it is a Substitute for Sale
• Venkatesha v. KM Venkatamuniyappa: A Rectification Deed Cannot, in the Guise of Correcting an Error, Substitute the Very Subject Matter

Law on Damages

• Law on Damages
• Who has to fix Damages in Tort and  Contract?
• Law on Damages in Defamation  Cases
• Pleadings in Defamation  Suits
• Godrej Projects Development Limited v. Anil Karlekar, 2025 INSC 143 – Supreme Court Missed to State  Something

Easement

• Easement Simplified
• What is Easement? Does Right of Easement  Allow to ‘Enjoy’ Servient Land After Making Improvements Therein  ?
• “Implied Grant” in Law of  Easements
• Implied Grant: A Valid Mode of Creation of Easement under Indian  Law
• “Title Thereto” in the Definition of ‘Prescriptive Easement’ in Sec. 15 of the Indian Easements Act,  1882
• Prescriptive Rights – Inchoate until the Title thereof is Upheld by a Competent  Court
• Will Easement of Necessity Ripen into a Prescriptive  Easement?
• What is “period ending within two years next before the institution of the suit” in Easement by  Prescription?
• Is the Basis of Every Easement, Theoretically, a  Grant
• Extent of Easement (Width of Way) in Easement of Necessity,  Quasi Easement and Implied  Grant
• Easement of Necessity and Prescriptive Easement are Mutually Destructive; But, Easement of Necessity and Implied Grant Can be Claimed  Alternatively
• Plea of Easement by Express Grant and Easement of Necessity: Mutually Exclusive and Destructive
• Can  Easement of Necessity and  of Grant be Claimed in a Suit (Alternatively)?
• Can an Easement-Way be Altered by the Owner of the  Land?
• Village Pathways and Right to Bury are not  Easements.
• Custom & Customary Easements in Indian  Law
• ‘Additional Burden Loses Lateral Support’ – Incorrect  Proposition
• Grant in Law
• A GRANT Must be Construed Most Strongly Against the Grantor
• Travancore Grant Deeds, in  Law
• Right of Private Way Beyond (Other Than)  Easement
• Easement – Should Date of Beginning of 20 Years be&nbs p;pleaded?
• What is Easement, in law? Right of Easement  Simplified
• One Year Interruption or Obstruction will not affect Prescriptive  Easement
• Should the Plaintiff Schedule Servient Heritage in a Suit Claiming Perspective  Easement?
• Necessary Parties in Suits on  Easement
• Easement by Prescription – Grant or ‘Acquiring’ by “Hostile  Act”
• Sec. 7 Easements Act – Natural Advantages Arising from the Situation of Land & Natural Flow of  Water
• Licence and Irrevocable Licence: Section 60 Easements Act Applies only to ‘Bare Licences’ and Not to ‘Contractual  Licences’

Stamp Act & Registration

• Sub-Registrar has no Authority to Ascertain whether the Vendor has  Title
• Title Enquiry by the Sub Registrar is  Illegal
• Cancellation of Sale Deeds and Settlement Deeds & Powers of Sub-Registrar in Cancelling  Deeds
• Time-Limit For Adjudication of Unstamped Documents, before  Collector
• Time Limit for Registration of  Documents
• Presumptions on Registered Documents & Truth of Contents
• Registration of Documents Executed out of  India
• Does  Registration of a Document give  Notice to the Whole  World?
• Is Registration of a Deed, Notice to  Government?
• Registration of a Document Relates Back to the Date when it was Executed
• LAW ON INSUFFICIENTLY STAMPED  DOCUMENTS
• Adjudication as to Proper Stamp under Stamp  Act
• Unstamped & Unregistered Documents and Collateral  Purpose
• Can an Unregistered Sale Agreement be Used for Specific  Performance
• Impounding of Documents, When Produced; Cannot Wait Till it is  Exhibited
• No Adjudication Needed If Power of Attorney is Sufficiently  Stamped
• Notary Attested Power-of-Attorney Sufficient for Registration
• What is Torrens  System

Natural Justice/Disciplinary Action

• Expulsion of Members & Removal of  Office-Bearers
• Arjun Dass v. The State of AP: Natural Justice Violation in Removal of  Mathadhipati
• Natural Justice – Not an Unruly Horse
• Krishnadatt Awasthy v. State of M.P., 29 January, 2025 – Law on Natural Justice  Revisited

• Court’s Jurisdiction to Interfere in the Internal Affairs of a Club or  Society
• Sec. 91 CPC and Suits Against Wrongful  Acts
• Does Alternate Remedy Bar Civil Suits and Writ  Petitions?
• Civil Rights & Jurisdiction of Civil Courts under Sec. 9  CPC
• Court Interference in Election Process of Societies and  Clubs

Divorce/Marriage

• Presumption of Valid Marriage – If lived together for Long  Spell
• Validity of Foreign Divorce Decrees in  India
• Is  ‘Irretrievable Brake-down of Marriage’, a  Valid Ground for Divorce in  India?
• Foreign Divorce Judgment against Christians having Indian  Domicile

Negotiable Instruments Act

• Does a Cheque-Case under NI Act Lie Against a Partnership/ Trust/  Society?
• Partnership Firm Need Not be an Accused in S. 138 NI Act  Complaint
• Mansi Finance (Chennai) Ltd. v. M. Lalitha (2026 INSC 547, May 26, 2026.): Cheque Bounce (NI Act) Cases: No Deemed Liability to the Directors of a Company or Society; The Complaint Must Disclose Factual  Basis
• Presumptions Regarding Consideration in Cheque Cases under the NI  Act
• An Inchoate Cheque (Signed Blank Cheque or Incomplete Cheque) Cannot be Enforced Through a Court of Law Invoking Presumptions under the NI  Act
• Does Cheque-Case under Sec. 138, NI Act Lie Against a  Trust?
• Sec. 138 NI Act (Cheque) Cases: Presumption of Consideration u/s. 118
• Even if ‘Signed-Blank-Cheque’, No Burden on Complainant to Prove Consideration; Rebuttal can be by a Probable  Defence
• “Otherwise Through an Account” in Section 142, NI  Act
• Where to file Cheque Bounce Cases (Jurisdiction of Court – to file NI Act  Complaint)?
• Cheque Dishonour Case against a Company, Firm or  Society
• What is ‘Cognizance’ in  Law
• What is COGNIZANCE and Application of Mind by a  Magistrate?

Criminal

• Pradeep Nirankarnath Sharma v. The State of Gujarat: The police have no discretion to conduct a preliminary inquiry before registering an FIR in cognizable  offences
• Sadiq B. Hanchinmani v. The State of Karnataka: Supreme Court held – Commission of Cognizable Offence, On the Face of it, Merit Police Investigation
• ‘Prima Facie Case’ in Criminal  Cases
• Goverdhan v. The State of Rajasthan: Not Contrary to the Statutory Mandate under Section 293(1) CrPC; Apex Court Followed the Legal Logic Employed by the Earlier Decisions

Arbitration

• Seesaw of Supreme Court in NN Global Mercantile v. Indo Unique  Flame
• N.N. Global Mercantile (P) Ltd. v. Indo Unique Flame Ltd. and Ground Realities of Indian  Situation
• What are Non-Arbitrable Disputes? When a Dispute is Not Referred to Arbitration in spite of Arbitration  Clause
• Termination or Nullity of Contract Will Not Cease Efficacy of the Arbitration  Clause
• No Valid Arbitration Agreement ‘Exists’ – Can Arbitration Clause be  Invoked?

Will

• Interpretation of Wills
• Interpretation of Inconsistent Clauses in a  Will
• Executors of Will – Duties & their  Removal
• A Witness to Hindu-Will will not Lose  Benefit
• Will – Probate and Letters of  Administration
• How to Write a Will? Requirements of a Valid  Will
• Witnesses to the Will Need Not See the Execution of the  Will
• How to Prove a Will, in Court? Is Presumption enough to Prove a Registered  Will?
• When Execution of a Will is ‘Admitted’ by the Opposite Side, Should it be ‘Proved’?
• 30 Years Old Documents- No ‘Absolute’ Presumption of Truth of Contents, under Sec. 90 Evidence  Act
• Suit on Possessory Remedy, Other side Admits Possession; Should the Will be  Proved?
• Presumption on Registered Documents & Truth of  Contents
• Presumptions on Documents and Truth of  Contents
• Mere Marking (a Document) is Not Proof Vs. Waiver, if No Objection
• R.V.E. Venkatachala Gounder: An Odd Decision on Established Rules on Admissibility of Documents?
• Parvathi Nairthi v. Laxmi Nairthy: Deprivation of Natural Heirs Not Amount to Suspicious Circumstance; A Will is not Required to be Proved with Mathematical Accuracy; Unregistered Will is  Valid.

Book No.  2:  A Handbook on Constitutional Issues

• Judicial & Legislative Activism in India: Principles and  Instances
• Can Legislature Overpower Court Decisions by an  Enactment?
• Separation of Powers: Who Wins the Race – Legislature or Judiciary?
• Kesavananda Bharati Case: Never Ending  Controversy
• Mullaperiyar Dam: Disputes and Adjudication of Legal  Issues
• Article 370: Is There Little Chance for Supreme Court  Interference
• Maratha Backward Community Reservation: SC Fixed Limit at  50%.
• Polygraphy, Narco Analysis and Brain Mapping Tests
• CAA Challenge: Divergent  Views
• FERA, 1973 And Transfer of Immovable Property by a  Foreigner
• Doctrine of ‘Right to be Forgotten’ in Indian  Law
• Doctrines on Ultra Vires and Removing the BASIS of the Judgment, in ED Director’s Tenure Extension Case (Dr. Jaya Thakur v. Union of  India)
• Dr. Jaya Thakur v. Union of India – Mandamus (Given in a Case) Cannot be Annulled by Changing the  Law
• Art. 370 – Turns the Constitution on Its  Head

Religious issues

• Sabarimala Review: Supreme Court to Decide the Contours of Constitutional  Morality
• Secularism and Art. 25 & 26 of the Indian  Constitution
• Secularism & Freedom of Religion in Indian  Panorama
• ‘Ban on Muslim Women to Enter Mosques, Unconstitutional’
• No Reservation to Muslim and Christian SCs/STs (Dalits) Why?
• Parsi Women – Excommunication for Marrying Outside
• Knanaya Endogamy & Constitution of  India
• Sabarimala Review Petitions & Reference to 9-Judge  Bench
• SABARIMALA REVIEW and Conflict in Findings between Shirur Mutt Case & Durgah Committee  Case
• Ayodhya  Disputes: M. Siddiq case –Pragmatic Verdict

Book No.  3:  Common Law of CLUBS and SOCIETIES in India

• General
  • General  Features
  • Bye Laws  Fundamental
  • Effect of Registration of Societies and Incorporation of  Clubs
  • Societies and Branches
• Property & Trust
  • Vesting of Property in Societies and  Clubs
  • Incidents of Trust in Clubs and  Societies
  • Can a Trust be Registered as a  Society? Can a Society be Converted into a  Trust?
  • Juristic Personality of Societies and  Clubs
  • Legal Personality of Trustees and Office Bearers
• Suits
  • Suits and Criminal Complaints By and Against a Company
  • Suits By or Against Societies, Clubs
  • Court’s Jurisdiction to Interfere in the Internal Affairs
  • How to Sue Societies, Clubs and  Companies
  • Members of a Charitable Society which Runs a College are Tractable to Prevention of Corruption  Act
  • Does a Cheque-Case under NI Act Lie Against a Partnership/ Trust/  Society?
  • Lifting Corporate Veil of Companies and Subsidiary  Companies
• Amendment and Dissolution
  • Amendment of Bye laws of Societies and  Clubs
  • Dissolution of Societies and  Clubs
• Rights and Management
  • Rights & Liabilities of Members of Clubs and  Societies
  • Individual Membership Rights in Societies & Clubs
  • Management – Powers of General Body and Governing  Body
  • Company, University, Society, etc. Act on ‘Resolutions’
  • Expulsion of Members & Removal of  Office-Bearers
  • Law on Meetings: An  Overview
  • Adjournment of Meetings and Polling of Associations
  • How to Prove Resolutions of a Company; Are Minutes  Necessary?
• Election
  • Election & Challenge in Societies and  Clubs
  • Court Interference in Election  Process
• State Actions
  • State-Interference in Affairs of Societies &  Clubs
• Disciplinary Proceedings Against Employees Co-Operative Societies

Book No. 4:  Common Law of TRUSTS in India

• General Principles
  • Classification of Trusts
  • What is Trust in Law?
  • Public & Private Trusts in  India.
  • Trust is ‘An Obligation’; Not a Legal Entity
  • Indian Law Does Not Accept Salmond, as to Dual  Ownership
  • Trusts and Trust  Deeds
  • Lucknow Nagar Nigam v. Kohli Brothers Colour Lab, 2024-2 SCR  847
• Dedication and Vesting
  • Dedication of Property in Public  Trusts
  • Vesting of Property in  Trusts
  • Incidents of Trust in Clubs and  Societies
  • Can a Trust be Registered as a  Society? Can a Society be Converted into a  Trust?
  • What is Munambam Wakf Land Issue? If there is No Permanent Dedication, there will be No  Wakf.
• Trustees and Management
  • Trustees and Administration of Public Trusts
  • Alienation of Public Trust  Property
  • Extinction, Discharge, Revocation, etc. of Public  Trusts
  • Charitable and Religious Trusts Act, 1920: Provisions as regards opinion, advice or direction of the  Court.
• Breach of Trust
  • Breach of Trust and Removal of Trustees
• Suits by or against Trusts
  • Suits By or Against Trusts and Trustees
  • A Trust Cannot Be Made as a Party  to a  Litigation
  • Remedies Under Sec. 92  CPC
  • Operation Asha   v. Shelly Batra, a Landmark Judgment on Sec. 92, CPC – Critical  Appreciation
  • Does a Cheque-Case under NI Act Lie Against a Partnership/ Trust/  Society?
• Law on Hindu Religious  Endowments
  • Philosophy of  Idol  Worship
  • Is an Idol a Perpetual  Minor?
  • Hindu Temples & Law of  Trusts
  • Law of Mutts and Other Hindu Endowments
  • Shebaits & Mahants and Law of Trustees
• Temples, Gurudwaras, Churches and  Mosques – General
  • Legal Personality of Temples, Gurudwaras, Churches and  Mosques
• Constitutional Principles
  • Secularism and Art. 25 & 26 of the Indian  Constitution
  • Secularism & Freedom of Religion in Indian  Panorama
  • ‘Muslim Women: Ban to Enter Mosques, Is it Unconstitutional
  • Parsi Women Excommunication, Unconstitutional.
  • Knanaya Endogamy & Constitution of  India
  • State & Court – Protectors of All Charities
  • Striking Down Legislation Relating to a Trust as Violative of  Article 14 and  300A
• Ayodhya and Sabarimala Disputes
  • Ayodhya  Disputes: M. Siddiq case – Pragmatic Verdict
  • Sabarimala Review Petitions & Reference to 9-Judge  Bench
  • SABARIMALA REVIEW and Conflict in Findings between Shirur Mutt Case & Durgah Committee  Case
• General
  • Public Trusts and (State) Endowments/Trusts Acts
  • Public Trusts and Indian Trusts Act – An  Overview
  • Business by Charitable Trusts &  Institutions